The long wait is over! The Bank of International Settlements (BIS) has just released the results from its Triennial Central Bank Survey of Foreign Exchange and Derivatives Market Activity, conducted in April 2010. The report contains a veritable treasure trove of data, perhaps enough to keep analysts busy until the next report is released in 2013. [Chart below courtesy of WSJ].

First, the data confirmed earlier reports that average daily forex volume had surged to a record level in 2010: “Global foreign exchange market turnover was 20% higher in April 2010 than in April 2007, with average daily turnover of $4.0 trillion compared to $3.3 trillion. The increase was driven by the 48% growth in turnover of spot transactions, which represent 37% of foreign exchange market turnover. The increase in turnover of other foreign exchange instruments [consisting mainly of swaps and accounting for the majority of forex trading activity] was more modest at 7%.” In addition, for the first time, investors and financial institutions accounted for a larger share of turnover than banks, whose trading activity has remained roughly unchanged since 2004.

The composition of the turnover actually didn’t change from 2007, interrupting a shift which had been taking place over the previous 10 years. Specifically, the share of overall turnover accounted for by the so-called major currencies actually increased in 2010, from 172% to 175%. [Since there are two currencies in every transaction, total volume sums to 200%]. Growth in the G4 currencies (Dollar, Euro, Pound, Yen) was more modest, however, increasing from 154% to 155%. This reversal is probably attributable to the credit crisis, which drove (and in fact, continues to drive) investors out of emerging market currencies and back into safe haven currencies, namely the Dollar, Yen, and Pound. However, this theory is belied by the significant increase in Euro trading activity, which certainly hasn’t benefited from the recent trend towards risk aversion.

While emerging currencies as a group accounted for a smaller share of overall activity, certain individual currencies managed to increase their respective shares. The Singapore Dollar, Korean Won, New Turkish Lira, and Brazilian Real all fit into this category. Still other currencies, such as the Indonesian Rupiah and Malaysian Ringgit, also managed impressive gains but account for such a small share of volume as to be insignificant when looking at the overall the picture. Those who were expecting even bigger growth should remember that it’s ultimately a numbers game: the amount of Ringgit it outstanding is dwarfed by the number of Dollars, so any gains that the Ringgit can eke out are impressive. In addition, when you consider that the overall forex pie is also increasing, the nominal increase in volume for these small currencies was actually quite large.

The ongoing search for yield in all corners of the financial markets is likely to bring some of the more obscure currencies into the fold. “In June, I began getting questions about Uruguay, Vietnam and others,” said Win Thin, senior currency strategist at Brown Brothers Harriman in New York…investors often asked Mr. Thin questions about less-familiar currencies such as the Ukrainian hryvnia and Romanian leu.” In the same article, however, Mr. Thin cautioned that interest in such currencies is still probably lower than in 2007-2008, for a good reason. “It’s not like the Group of 10, or even the more liquid emerging market currencies where, if you decide you’ve made a mistake, you can get out.”

Due to the lack of liquidity and higher spreads, these obscure currencies aren’t really suitable for trading. Of course there will be a handful of institutional and even retail investors that want to make long-term bets on these currencies. They tend to be more aware of the risk and less sensitive to the higher cost and lower convenience. The overwhelming majority of traders, however, churn their portfolios daily, if not hundreds of times per day. A 10pip spread on the USD/MXN (Dollar/Mexican Peso) would be considered too high, let alone a 50 pip spread on any transaction involving the Ukrainian hryvnia.

In short, the majors will account for the majority of trading volume for the foreseeable future, regardless of what happens to the Euro. At the same time, that won’t prevent a handful of selected emerging currencies, such as the Chinese Yuan, Indian Rupee, Brazilian Real, and Russian Ruble from increasing their share. As liquidity rises and spreads decline, volume will increase, and their rising importance will become self-fulfilling.

The recovery that emerging markets (their economies and financial markets) have staged since the lows of 2008 is impressive. In most corners of the financial markets, all of the losses have been erased, and securities/currencies are trading only slightly below there pre-credit crisis levels. Even compared to twelve months ago, in 2009, the performance of emerging market currencies holds up well. In the year-to-date, however, most of these currencies have appreciated only slightly, thanks to a particularly weak month of August.

The MSCI emerging market stock index is currently down 2.5% since the start of the year. You can see from the chart above that most emerging market currencies tend to track this index pretty closely, rising and falling on the same days as the index. Interestingly, emerging market stocks appear to be much more volatile than emerging market currencies. You can also see that while the Malaysian RInggit has started to separate itself from the pack, the others have moved in lockstep with each other and are all about even for the year.

On the other hand, emerging market debt – as proxied by the JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond Index (EMBI+) has been unbelievably strong. Prior to the slight correction in the last couple weeks, the index has risen a whopping 20% over the last twelve months. On the surface, this disconnect between stocks and bonds would seem to be an anomaly, or even a contradiction. After all, if investors are only lukewarm about emerging market currencies and stocks, what reason would there be for them to get so excited about bonds.

If you drill a little deeper, however, it all starts to make sense. Due to a weak appetite for risk, 2010 has been a favorable year for bonds, at the expense of stocks. I would have assumed that poor risk appetite would also have helped G7 financial markets, at the expense of the emerging markets, but you can see from the chart below (which shows the MSCI emerging markets stock index closely tracking the S&P 500) that this simply isn’t the case. On the contrary, this same dynamic is playing out simultaneously in emerging markets. “Today, we are favoring emerging-market debt over emerging-market equities because the debt provides us with a better risk-adjusted return,” summarized one portfolio manager.

When it comes to debt, emerging markets have actually outperformed G7 debt, in spite of the current risk-averse climate. “Funds investing in emerging-market local-currency debt have attracted $16.9 billion of net inflows so far, more than triple the record annual intake of $5 billion recorded in 2007.” The logical basis for this shift is surprisingly straightforward: “When we look at government debt, we’re always comparing and contrasting the yields versus the fundamentals. I just don’t know why you would want those low yields from a Treasury bond in the developed world when you can get much higher yields — and in our estimation, an improving economic story — in Indonesia, Malaysia or Brazil.”

In other words, why would you want to earn 2.65% from a country (US) whose national debt is close to 100% of GDP, when you could earn double or triple that rate from investing in the sovereign debt of countries whose Debt-to-GDP ratios are sustainable?!  In addition, when it comes to investing in debt, the lack of volatility in emerging market currencies can bee seen as a plus, since it prevents the interest rates from becoming diluted. To be fair, fundamentals don’t represent the whole story: “After 2008, you really have to take liquidity into consideration. Emerging markets are going to be some of the first to freeze up in a crisis.”

In fact, some analysts are already starting to question whether the markets haven’t gotten ahead of themselves in this regard, and that perhaps we are due for a big correction: “Come September, when trading resumes in earnest, we’ll find out if the cozy emerging markets world we have experienced over the past few months was summer laziness or strong conviction.” With vacations ending and traders set to return to their desks, we won’t have to wait long to find out.

With the onset of the Eurozone sovereign debt crisis this year, volatility levels in forex (as well as in other financial markets), surged to levels not seen since the height of the credit crisis. While volatility has subsided slightly over the last few months, it still remains above its average for the year, and significantly above levels of the last five years.

The spike in volatility was easy enough to understand. Basically, the possibility of a default by a member of the EU or even worse, a breakup of the Euro created massive uncertainty in the markets, spurring the flow of capital from regions and assets perceived as risky to those perceived as safe havens. As you can see from the chart below, this trend has begun to reverse itself, but still remains prone to sudden spikes.

While the crisis in the EU seems to have (temporarily) settled, investors are attuned to the possibility that it could flare up again at any moment. A failed bond issue, a higher-than-forecast budget deficit, political stalemate, labor strikes – all signal a failure to resolve the crisis, and would surely trigger a renewed upswing in volatility and sell-off in risky assets.

The same goes for (unforeseen) crises in other regions, affecting other currencies. Muses one analyst: “Next week? Who knows. One strong candidate is for flight out of the yen as investors start to fear there won’t be enough domestic demand for mountains of Japanese debt and foreign buyers will insist on much higher yields. Another might be that Swiss banking exposure to insolvent east European households causes another banking crisis.” Don’t forget about the UK and US, both of which have hardly put the recession behind them, and whose Trillions in debt represent powder kegs waiting to explode.

It will be months or years before these latent crises even begin to manifest themselves, let alone achieve some kind of resolution. As a result, many analysts predict that volatility will remain high for the foreseeable future: “Big and sudden currency market moves shouldn’t come as a surprise, whatever the direction…Higher market volatility should follow on from greater macroeconomic volatility. Increased economic fluctuations increase uncertainty. And there’s no question macroeconomic volatility has risen.”

In addition, there is no way for governments for Central Banks to alleviate these crises due to the “Trillema of International Finance.” Greg Mankiw, Harvard Economics Professors, explains that in prioritizing an independent monetary policy and open capital markets have forced many countries to forgo exchange rate stability: “Any American can easily invest abroad…and foreigners are free to buy stocks and bonds on domestic exchanges. Moreover, the Federal Reserve sets monetary policy to try to maintain full employment and price stability. But a result of this decision is volatility in the value of the dollar in foreign exchange markets.” While the Euro has eliminated exchange rate fluctuations between members of the Eurozone, meanwhile, there is nothing that the ECB can (or desires to) do to minimize volatility between the Euro and outside currencies.

From the standpoint of forex strategy, there are a couple of lessons that can be learned. First of all, the carry trade will remain underground until volatility returns to more attractive levels. Until then, the potential gains from earning a positive yield spread will be offset by the possibility of sudden, irascible currency depreciation. Second, growth currencies – despite boasting strong fundamentals – will remain vulnerable to sudden declines. That doesn’t mean that they should be avoided; rather, you should simply be aware that small corrections could easily turn into multi-month weakness.

After a slight respite following the culmination of the Eurozone debt crisis, emerging markets financial markets are back to the their former selves, with stocks, bonds, and currencies all performing well.

The rally is being driven by two principal factors. First, investors came to the gradual realization that the trend towards risk aversion had reached extreme proportions. Given that the crisis in the EU has been fairly limited both in scope and extent (at least so far), it made little sense to punish emerging markets. If anything, emerging markets should have been the financial safe havens: “Debt-to-GDP ratios in the developed world are about double those in emerging markets, and they’re growing. This makes emerging markets interesting because you’re picking up incremental spread and in return you’re actually taking less macroeconomic risk.”

Other analysts see a certain futility in targeting a risk-averse strategy: “It’s not that people suddenly think emerging markets are a lot safer, it’s that they’re realising risk is everywhere and they can’t just assume the developed world is safe.” In other words, some investors are wondering whether it doesn’t make sense to focus less on risk – which  has become increasingly random – and more on return. In this aspect, emerging market investments of all kinds are more attractive than their counterparts in the developed world.

The second source of momentum for the rally is a long-term shift in capital allocation. Thanks to foreign demand, Emerging Market “borrowers, including governments and companies, have raised almost $300bn (£200bn) to date, up 10 per cent on the same period in 2009.” A microcosm of this surge can be seen in US mutual funds: “Emerging market equity funds…posted combined inflows of more than $3 billion for the week ended July 14, while emerging market bond funds took in $745 million, bringing their year-to-date inflows to an all-time high of $18.5 billion.”

Across all sectors, money is pouring into emerging markets at an even faster pace than before the credit crisis. This time around, however, analysts argue that it is justified by fundamentals: “Economies in the developing world are slated to grow 6.3% this year and are expected to maintain a similar growth rate through 2013, according to the International Monetary Fund. Advanced economies are seen expanding around 2.4% annually over the same time period.” The Brazilian economy alone expanded at an annualized rate of 9% in 2010 Q1, the fastest rate in 15 years!

Emerging market investors share the confidence of foreign investors, and it seems the flow of funds will primarily be one-way. According to a recent survey, “Just 19 per cent of Brazilians, 15 per cent of Indians and 11 per cent of Chinese…said they anticipated increasing cross-border investment.”

At this point, the only thing that could derail emerging markets is if investors get too ahead of themselves. According to Citigroup, “Developing-nation shares will rally 20 percent to 25 percent by the end of this year as the world economy avoids a double-dip recession and attractive valuations lure investors.” That would bring share prices past the current level and dangerously close to the pre-credit crisis highs of 2008. The JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond Index (EMBI+) has already shattered its previous record, and given the current spread of only 300 basis points to US Treasuries (which themselves are trading near all-time lows), one has to wonder if investors aren’t at risk of re-entering bubble territory.

If for whatever reason investors get spooked, it could spark the same capital flight that followed the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers, in which emerging market and commodity currencies alike fell 30-50% over a duration of mere months. While no one is predicting a similar outcome this time around, I think prudence and caution are nonetheless advisable.

It’s understandable that forex investors basically ignore New Zealand. Its economy is around 10% the size of its neighbor Australia, its currency is less liquid, and spreads are higher. Given that its performance closely tracks the Australian Dollar, meanwhile, why pay it any attention?

To be sure, the new currencies from Down Under trade in virtual lockstep, having strayed by only a few cents in either direction from their trading mean over the last year. Since the beginning of May, however, the Kiwi has staged an impressive rally, rising 8% against the Aussie in a matter of weeks. Perhaps, there is something worth analyzing after all!

According to most analysts, the sudden rise is largely a product of risk-appetite. Specifically, as the EU sovereign debt crisis stalls, investors are relaxing, and gradually moving capital back into growth currencies, like the New Zealand Dollar. In fact, the Kiwi recently rose to a one-month high on the same day that Spain successfully completed a bond auction.

For proof of this phenomenon, one need look no further than the close relationship between the NZD/USD rate and US stocks, as proxied by the S&P 500. You can see from the chart below that they have largely tracked each other over the last 12 months. This relationship seems to have intensified over the last few weeks, as the New Zealand Dollar sometimes takes its cues directly from releases of US economic data.

However, New Zealand economic fundamentals are also playing a role, perhaps even the dominant role. According to one analyst, “The NZ dollar had now recovered nearly all its losses of late May…Domestic fundamentals had contributed relatively more to the NZ dollar’s recent recovery than had the mild improvement in the global backdrop.” Unlike Australia, which has been racked by political disruptions and concerns over an economic slowdown by its largest trade partner (China), New Zealand continues to coast at a healthy pace.

Moody’s forecasts that New Zealand’s economy will expand by 2.4% in 2010, and “assuming a healthy global economy, New Zealand’s recovery should evolve into a self-sustaining expansion during 2011 and 2012.” This should set the stage for near-term rate hikes, beginning with an expected 25 basis point hike on July 29. Analysts project that the benchmark rate will reach 3.75% by the end of 2010, and 5% in 2011. Widening interest rate differentials, combined with the ongoing recovery in risk appetite, could turn the Kiwi into a popular carry trade currency.

Given that the Central Bank of Australia is also projected to further hike rates, it seems the Aussie will join the Kiwi in its upward march, and that the two currencies will continue to trade in lockstep. Options traders might try to construct a low volatility strategy, such as a short straddle or selling covered calls against the pair. For currency traders that prefer the Aussie, meanwhile, the New Zealand Dollar could serve as an attractive hedge.

Then again, it’s possible that both currencies could fade, especially if the EU debt crisis intensifies, and/or the global economic recovery stalls. In short, “The near-term outlook is…uncertain due to prevailing risk aversion that may weigh on the commodity currency universe.”

It looks like emerging market investors took my last post (“Investors” Shouldn’t Worry about the Euro) to heart, since emerging markets (EM) have continued to rally in spite of the Euro’s woes. To be sure, EM stocks, bonds, and currencies all dipped slightly in May when the crisis reached fever pitch, but they have since recovered their losses and are once again en route to record highs.

That’s not to say that that surge in risk-aversion wasn’t justified. In fact, investors are continuing to punish the Eurozone as well as a handful of other risky areas. However, analysts have concluded that in the case of emerging markets as a whole, this mindset doesn’t really make sense.

Simply, the fiscal and economic condition of is stronger than in developing countries. Whereas previously crises were known to originate in developing countries and spread to industrialized countries, this latest series of crisis turned that notion on its head. The credit and housing crises were largely the product of speculation in the West, and the sovereign debt crisis originated in Europe. While it’s possible that investor concern would self-fulfillingly cause the crisis to spread to emerging markets, any impact would probably be muted.

“There is recognition that emerging market balance sheets are strong and the debt to GDP ratio is below 40 per cent compared to the western world, where it is over 100 per cent in many countries,” summarized one analyst. “The vast majority of emerging market countries ‘have the tools to tackle inflation and will succeed, having reasonable independence from their central banks,’ ” added another.

Thus, the funds continue to pour in. “Net inflows into emerging market debt totalled $30.6bn (£20.7bn, €25bn) from the beginning of the year to late May compared with $33bn for the whole of 2009.” Here’s another sign of EM confidence: “IPOs in developing countries raised $29.3 billion this quarter, almost three times the amount in industrialised nations.” Meanwhile, the MSCI Emerging Market Stock Index has just finished its strongest rally since 2005, and the JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond Index (EMBI+) is closing in on another record high. This is frankly incredible when you consider that around half of the countries with the largest weightings in the index have experienced debt crises of varying severity over the last decade.

As far as forex investors are concerned, the confidence in EM capital markets should also extend to currencies. The carry trade is heating up (thanks to the cheap Euro), and will probably only expand as EM Central Banks move to raise interest rates to combat inflation, as alluded to above. If the Eurozone debt crisis intensifies, then you can expect some kind of pull-back. As with recent retracements, however, it will be only temporary.

The South Korean Won has been one of the biggest losers from the EU sovereign debt crisis. After a stellar 2009, the Won is off to a shaky start in 2010, and has lost 12% of its value in the last month alone. According to analysts, The won is “most sensitive to risk aversion” of any currency in Asia – or even the world. Thus, when the President of Hungary likened his country’s fiscal situation to that of Greece and inadvertently ignited fears that the crisis was spreading, the Korean Won immediately fell by 5% – the largest decline in 17 months.

Given all of the economies/currencies from which to choose, it seems bizarre that investors would gang up on the Won. That is, until you consider that South Korea’s fiscal situation is somewhat unique and that funding crises tend to hit the country especially hard. Summarized one analyst: “We are concerned that the negative market view of events in Europe will not dissipate and that the longer the stress continues, the more concerns will arise that the peripheral funding crisis could segue into a more extended funding crisis and into lower growth expectations.”

To elaborate, South Korea’s short-term foreign currency debt is extremely high (60% of foreign exchange reserves). That’s primarily due to Korean exporters’ hedging activities, which for risk management purposes, need to be offset by short-term borrowing by banks in the money market. Since this debt needs to be rolled over frequently, South Korea is especially vulnerable to liquidity crunches. In fact, the Won has been called a “VIX currency,” since it tends to fall when volatility (proxied by the VIX index) rises. Hence, the Won lost 50% of its value during the peak of the credit crisis, and has already declined 10% this time around.

The Central Bank is doing its part to relieve the liquidity shortage and stem the Won’s decline. It has already placed modest limits on speculative derivative transactions with the goal of limiting capital flight. It is pressing to renew currency swaps with the Fed and the Bank of Japan in order to increase the supply of alternative currency. In addition, it has taken to intervening directly in currency markets by selling Billions of Dollars on the spot market. Explaining the first market intervention in more than a year, the Central Bank declared, “The dollar’s surge against the won today was overdone. The authorities will try to prevent one-way currency moves.”

There are also a handful of market analysts who attribute the Won’s fall to the ongoing conflict with North Korea. In response to the sinking of a warship in March, South Korea has responded by imposing trade sanctions on North Korea, which in turn has responded with threats of “all-out war.” From a forex standpoint, “The largest concern is that the cutting off of economic links raises the risk of a sudden regime collapse, resulting in the South facing a huge influx of refugees. This would have a significant — and possibly prolonged — impact on the Korean won.”

How should one proceed? If indeed you believe that the Won is being harmed by the prospect of conflict with North Korea, you might be inclined to agree with the notion that, “The recent sell-off in the won has been overdone and should correct, assuming that the North-South tensions will ease in the months ahead.” In fact, if war is avoided, the current bear market could be an excellent buying opportunity, and the Won could still be on track to rise to 1,100 USD/KRW by year-end, conforming to analysts’ median expectations.

On the other hand, if you believe that the Won’s woes are largely attributable to the EU fiscal crisis, there is very little reason to hold the Won, since that crisis will probably only get worse before it gets better: “The Korean market was precariously positioned, with high multiples, above-trend earnings, heavy positioning towards risk and ominous technicals suggesting little sponsorship for strength.” In this case, the Won could easily fall to 1,300 – or worse – before the year is out.

In any event, South Korea will host a meeting of the G20 this week, which should yield more clarity into what the rest of 2010 has in store for the Won.

Generally speaking, investors are bullish about Brazil. The emerging market superstar emerged from the credit crisis essentially unscathed, and some believe that “Brazil will be the world’s fifth-biggest power by the next decade.” This year, the IMF is forecasting GDP growth of 5.5%, while the Central Bank of Brazil is projecting 6%.

But this post isn’t about the economy of Brazil. It’s about its currency, the Real. To put it mildly, investor sentiment surrounding the Real is slightly less rosy. The 30% appreciation (from trough to peak) against the Dollar has come to an end. “ ‘Buyers are exhausted. The real has been a pretty crowded trade and what’s happening is a lot of these long-term crowded positions are getting sold,’ ” summarized one money manager.

There are a handful of issues. First is the technical concern that the Real simply rose too far, too fast. “The currency’s weekly TD Sequential indicator suggests an almost yearlong rally against the dollar ended in October, while the moving average convergence/divergence, or MACD, chart shows the real is likely to weaken.  ‘A new trend has started and it’s strongly bearish.’ ” This notion is supported by an explosion in the so-called risk-reversal rate on the Real, in favor of options that give investors the right to sell. In fact, “insurance” on the Real is now the most expensive of any emerging market currency.

Investors are also nervous about the sovereign debt crisis in the EU, and are responding by temporarily moving funds back to safe haven currencies. “ ‘We’re seeing a lot of declines on top of concerns about Greece and Europe. Flows will come back to Brazil when you have signs of stability out there, and it doesn’t look like that will happen in the short term.’ ” Of course, this is also impacting the carry trade, as investors re-examine their models governing the trade-off between risk and return.

To be fair, increased risk could be accompanied by increased returns. Even withstanding a poor performance by the Real, itself, the benchmark Brazilian Selic rate stands at a healthy 9.5%. In all likelihood, it will be hiked past 10% next month, and to 11% by the end of the year. On the flipside, inflation is also surging (5.5% at last count). From the standpoint of investors, this is not really a concern, since there is no intention of using invested capital for consumption purposes. In fact, it could even be seen as positive, insofar as it will force the Central Bank of Brazil to continue to be aggressive in conducting monetary policy.

There seems to be a slight dichotomy between the data and the markets. On the one hand, there is plenty for investors to be excited about when looking at Brazil. On the other hand, the reality is that there just isn’t much excitement at the moment being channeled towards the Real. If interest rates continue to rise, and the debt crisis in Euro can achieve some kind of (stopgap) resolution, perhaps this will change.

Given that only a week has passed since the bailout of Greece was formally unveiled, it’s still too early to determine whether the plan will be success. Regardless of how it ultimately plays out, though, the bailout (not too mention the concomitant crisis) is shaping up to be THE big market mover of 2009. As investors reposition their chips, some early front-runners are emerging. It might surprise you that one such leader is the Japanese Yen.

On the surface, the Japanese Yen would seem to be an excellent candidate for shorting, especially in the context of the the Greek fiscal crisis. Its fiscal and economic fundamentals are abysmal, and by most measures, it’s debt position is among the least sustainable in the world, behind even Spain, Portugal, and the US. At the same time, the Yen has risen by an unbelievable 8% against the Euro in the last week alone, and many analysts are predicting it will emerge as one of the winners of this episode.

Why? First of all, with confidence in the Euro flagging, the Yen (and the Dollar) gain luster as the only viable reserve currencies. Regardless of what you think about Japan’s fiscal fundamentals, the longevity at the Yen means that it is inherently safer than the Euro, which may not even exist (in its current form, at least) in a few years time. Second, the current consensus is that the Euro bailout will fail, and as a result, risk tolerance is running low at the moment. With this in mind, it’s no surprise that traders are unwinding their carry trades and that the Yen – “The low-yielding currency of a deflation-prone economy of high savers…entrenched as the world’s funding currency” – has rallied.

Analysts have been quick to point out that the rest of Asia (among other regions) are on the other side of this trend. The concern is that the bailout won’t be enough to prevent a repeat credit crunch and that confidence in investments/currencies that are perceived as risky will remain low.

China could be hit especially hard. Since the Chinese Yuan is pegged to the Dollar (and even it wasn’t), it has risen by a whopping 15% against the EUro over the last six months, severely crimping exports to the EU. In addition, “Chinese exporters rely very heavily on bank letters of credit to finance their shipments…When banks have trouble borrowing money themselves — as has been happening as a result of worries about European banks’ possible losses from the region’s sovereign debt crisis — they tend to cut sharply the issuance of letters of credit for trade finance.” It’s no wonder that the Chinese stock market has tanked 21% so far in 2010, and that the Central Bank continues to delay revaluing the RMB.

Of course, if the plan turns out to be a success, than the opposite will probably obtain. “In this case…the currency of any emerging market or advanced economy exposed to the Asian region’s impressive, China-led economic growth,” will probably rally. “It could be the South Korean won, the Australian dollar, or the currencies of commodity-producing countries like Brazil.” The Japanese Yen, meanwhile, will probably be hit with a dose of reality, followed by a double dose of the carry trade.

The rally in emerging markets that I wrote about in April is showing no sign of abating. The MSCI emerging market stocks index is back to its pre-crisis level, while the EMBI+ emerging market bond index has surged to a record high. While no such index (that I know of) exists for emerging market currencies, one can be quite certain that at the very least, it too would also have returned to its pre-crisis level.

The Greek fiscal crisis, far from discouraging risk-averse investors from emerging markets, appears to instead be spurring them closer. From a comparative standpoint, emerging market governments are in much better shape than their industrialized counterparts, to say nothing of Greece. Credit ratings on a handful of emerging market debt issues are gradually being raised, whereas Greece was downgraded to junk status. Summarized one investor: “This is a group of countries with relatively strong balance sheets offering attractive levels of yield.”

It’s no wonder then that capital inflows into emerging market debt has already set an annual record (for 2010), despite the fact that we are only four months into the year! “The World Bank predicts as much as $800 billion in global capital flows this year, compared with about an annualized $450 billion to developing economies in the second half of 2009.” In addition, whereas institutional investors previously insisted on funding only those issues that were denominated in foreign currency (such as Dollars or Euros), now they seem to have a preference for so-called local currency debt. According to one emerging markets fund manager, “We expect local currency to be our biggest theme going forward.”

The real story here, however, is less the growing investor interest in emerging markets (which is now well established), and more the growing ambivalence of emerging markets. No doubt grateful to be attracting record sums of capital at lower-than-ever interest rates, emerging market governments are nonetheless unhappy about the resulting currency appreciation.

Taiwan has emerged as the unlikely voice of emerging markets on this issue. Its Central Bank recently “asked 65 banks for details of their foreign-currency lending to make sure exporters and importers aren’t using the loans to speculate on the island’s dollar,” and urged its peers to “adjust their monetary policies to address the disorderly movements of exchange rates.”

It doesn’t need to prod too hard, however, since a handful of Central Banks have either already intervened or are seriously considering intervention. Last month, Poland intervened by selling the Zloty against the Dollar. The Central Bank of South Africa cut interest rates by 50 basis points in March, despite surging inflation. Brazil continues to hold auctions to buy Dollars on the spot market, while India mulls implementing some form of a Tobin tax on currency transactions.

Not long ago, such measures would have been criticized as protectionist and against liberal, free-market principles. Not anymore. The International Monetary Funds (IMF), recently “urged developing nations to consider using taxes and regulation to moderate vast inflows of capital so they don’t produce asset bubbles and other financial calamities.” Private-sector economists agree, with Standard Chartered Bank arguing that “Emerging markets need to take ‘urgent action’ on the surge of liquidity and capital flowing into their economies because they could spur inflation and trigger another crisis,” much like “excess liquidity contributed to problems in the Western developed economies ahead of the financial crisis.”

In short, emerging markets have the green light to go ahead and stop their currencies from appreciating. But will they act on it?

As I pointed out in last Friday’s post (Volatility, Carry, Risk, and the Forex Markets), volatility has been declining in forex markets since peaking after the collapse of Lehman Brothers. In fact, volatility among emerging market currencies has been falling particularly fast, and recently, something amazing happened: “Three-month implied volatility for the seven biggest developing country currencies fell to 10 percent in March compared with 11.4 percent for industrialized nations.” This inversion could rank as one of this year’s most important developments in terms of its impact on forex. The only runner-up that I can think of is Japanese LIBOR falling below American LIBOR.

Despite its remarkableness, this development isn’t unsurprising, since 8 of the 10 best performers in forex this year are emerging market currencies, led by the Costa Rican Colon, Mexican Peso, and Malaysian Ringgit. Still, we usually assume that with high return, comes high risk. How could it be that what are thought of as risky currencies are now less volatile than the so-called majors. Does it really make sense, for example, that the Turkish Lira is less volatile than the British Pound.

Without exploring this particular pair in detail, in a word, the answer is yes. In 2010, emerging market growth is projected to be higher than in the industrialized world. Inflation is relatively stable, and debt levels are comparatively low. Meanwhile, all of the G4 currencies (US Dollar, Euro, Japanese Yen, and British Pound) are plagued by the possibility of Double-Dip recessions and debt crises of varying seriousness. In sum, “Developing nations reduced their foreign debt to 26 percent of GDP last year from 41 percent in 1999, while advanced nations’ debt may surge to 106.7 percent of GDP this year from 78.2 percent in 2007.” Talk about heading in opposite directions!

Investors are taking notice. While the JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond Index (EMBI+) is now rising at annualized rate of 22% (implying a decline in emerging market bond yields), rates on comparable EU and US debt is rising. Last week, the 10-Year Treasury Rate topped 4% for the first time in 18 months (though it has since retreated). Meanwhile, credit default swaps are pricing in a .4% chance of default in the US. Granted, this is still infinitesimal, but anything above 0% would have been derided as ridiculous only a few years ago. This year, the US is projected to spend more on servicing its debt than any other country except for the UK. The projected $1.6 Trillion deficit for 2010 certainly won’t help things.

Thus, emerging markets are projected “to lure $722 billion in overseas investment this year, 66 percent more than in 2009…Developing-nation bond funds attracted $7 billion this year, pushing assets under management to a record $74.7 billion.” Many portfolio managers are betting that this will be a long-term trend: “The rally in emerging-markets has barely started yet.”

What are the forex implications? For the first time, we could see the G4 currencies start trading as a bloc. [Previously, it was the US Dollar versus everything else. The introduction of the Euro ten years ago only strengthened this trend, which is ironic considering the EU has also become an establishment currency. But, if you look at the charts, the Dollar/Euro pair has rarely traded sideways, and traders have used it as a basis for making broader claims about the markets]. Now, it looks like this could finally change: “The big trends will be in non-G4 currencies against G4, such as dollar/Norway or euro/Aussie, and in emerging market currencies.”

Upon reviewing my previous post on the Brazilian Real (BRL), I now realize that it lacked context. In other words, while both the interest rate outlook and economic prospects of Brazil are both incredibly bright, who’s to say that this hasn’t already been priced into the Real? At the very least, more information is needed to determine whether the Real is valued fairly on an historical and/or relative basis. [Alas, the focus of this post isn't on the Real specifically, but on the forex markets in general. Still, the concepts that will form the backbone of this post - volatility, risk, and carry - can be seen clearly through the prism of the Real.]

This doubt was sparked by an article that I read recently, entitled “Markets ‘Not Pricing’ Potential Risks,” which explored the idea that the renewed appetite for risk and consequent run-up in asset prices and re-allocation of capital is naively optimistic: ” ‘The unique environment we’re in now revolves around unprecedented level of government involvement in markets, which creates this complacency over risk because of this belief that governments will fix everything.’ Markets are under-pricing the risk that nations such as Dubai and Greece may default, and excess borrowing by others could lead to inflation.” From a financial standpoint, the practical implications of this idea is that the markets are underpricing risk.

In forex markets, complacency towards risk has manifested itself in the form of decreasing volatility. When you look at the 435 most commonly-traded currency pairs (actually most currency pairs involving the 35 most popular currencies), volatility is increasing for only nine of them. In addition, one month-volatility is now below 15% for all (widely-traded) currency pairs, which means that based on the most recent data, the highest, annualized standard deviation percentage change for every currency pair is only 15%. [It's difficult to translate that concept into plain-English, but the basic idea is that all currencies are (actually, only 68% of the time) currently fluctuating by less than 15% from the mean on an annualized basis. The idea of standard deviation is murky for non-mathematicians, so it's probably more useful to look at it on a relative and historical basis, rather than in absolute terms. In other words, the 15% figure can not be explained very well in an of itself; one must see how it compares to other currency pairs and to other time periods].

The fact that volatility is currently low suggests that the carry trade, for example, is set to become increasingly viable, especially when you factor in upcoming interest rate hikes. On the other hand, real interest rate differentials are currently modest (from a historical standpoint), and the concern is that rate hikes could be accompanied by rising volatility. The Brazilian Real, for example, “has a risk-adjusted carry of 45 percent, based on Morgan Stanley estimates, which means its carry rates had been better than current levels 55 percent of the time the last five years.” When you look at conditions from a few years ago, when volatility was at record low levels and interest rate differentials were larger than historically average, it’s obvious that the hey-day for the carry trade was in the past. It may come again in the future, but it certainly isn’t now.

From a practical standpoint, if you’re thinking about getting involved in the carry trade, you’ll want to choose a currency pair where the real (after adjusting for inflation) interest rate differential is high and volatility is low. You can cross-reference interest differentials with these charts – which uses recent mean return and volatility as the basis for forecasting confidence intervals – to get an idea about which pairs offer the best value (i.e. higher rate differentials at lower volatility). Just be aware that a sudden upswing in volatility could put a big dent in your risk-adjusted returns.

One of the main themes (even if not always overt) of my posts recently has been the revival of the carry trade, if not the already extant revival than at least the imminent one. In this context, there is no better candidate than the Brazilian Real.

After a stellar 2009, the Brazilian Real opened 2010 in much the same way that most emerging market currencies did: down. In the month of January, alone, it fell almost 10% against the Dollar, as fears of a widespread sovereign debt crisis took hold in currency markets. Its modest recovery since then, is not so much due to a decreased likelihood of such a debt crisis, but rather to a shift in the markets’ perspective away from long-term fiscal problems and back towards short-term economic and monetary conditions.

It is here where Brazil (and the Real) shines. As one analyst summarized, “The Brazilian economy has been transformed over the past few years. The boom-and-bust and hyperinflation of previous decades has been replaced by steady growth. The country was one of the last major economies into recession, but one of the first out.” 2009 Q4 GDP came in at 4.3% on a year-over-year basis, and is projected at 6% for 2010. Moreover, its economy is very well-balanced, and consumer debt levels are relatively low. Unlike in China, for example, infrastructure investment in Brazil still has plenty of room to grow, without crowding out private investment. This is important, given that the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympics are right around the corner.

After rebounding from the lows of the 1999 currency crisis, meanwhile, the Brazilian stock market has had an incredible decade, returning an average of 20% annually. For the sake of comparison, consider that emerging markets have averaged 10%, and all stock markets have averaged only .2%. It doesn’t hurt that Brazil just discovered a huge (the fifth largest in the world) coastal oil reserve.

In fact, it might just be the latter that currency traders are most excited about: “Thus far this year, BRL is 68% correlated with crude oil prices…Last year the correlation was 53% and in 2008 the correlation was just shy of 32%.” This is the highest among any currency, even those that derive a much larger portion of GDP from oil exports, such as Canada and Norway. While there are almost certainly lurking variables in this correlation, a continued rise in the price of oil can’t hurt the Real.

Where does the carry trade fit into this? Look no further then Brazil’s benchmark interest rate of 8.5%. Impossibly, this represents a record low, despite the fact that this is nearly 8.5% higher than the current Federal Funds Rate. And the Brazilian rate is only set to rise. At the last meeting of the Bank of Brazil, 3 out of 8 Board members voted to hike the Selic rate by 50 basis points. The main opposition came from the Bank’s President, Henrique Meirelles, who steered a dovish course for political reasons.

Since then, inflation has continued to creep up and Mr. Meirelles has firmly renounced his political ambitions, and the stage is now set for a 75 basis point hike at the next meeting, to be held on April 28. Most analysts are projecting an “increase of between 200 and 300 basis points through mid-2011, [and] some investors are pricing about 450 basis points of hikes in the same period.”

It’s hard to predict if/when the Fed will follow suit, but most certainly won’t be to the same extent. As long as Brazilian interest rates can keep up with inflation, then, it looks like the Real will end 2010 in much the same fashion as 2009.

Since most emerging market economies and financial markets are fairly small, their currencies are subject to the whims of international investors, moreso than is the case with major currencies. For that reason, when I research emerging market currencies as a whole, I often like to focus on what investors are saying are saying about their stocks and bonds.

According to one columnist, “For an asset class once considered a snake pit of risk, emerging market sovereign bonds have become remarkably popular among investors. So popular, in fact, that even the most cautious of institutions have developed an appetite. Indeed, US pension funds are poised to pour almost $100bn (£65m, €74m) into emerging market debt in the next five years…potentially helping push yields relative to US Treasuries to a record low.” The popularity of emerging market debt is pretty incredible in the context of the Greek debt crisis and the consequent spike in risk aversion. At the same time, emerging market countries have been lauded for their sound finances and low debt-to-GDP ratios, so perhaps it’s no surprise that investors remain willing to continue lending them money. “More and more investors are looking to emerging market local bonds as an alternative to standard global bond allocations, as the problems in Greece and the European periphery highlight the credit risks of that market that have been long underpriced.”

The same is basically true for emerging market stocks, as “A recovery in economic growth and exports in developing nations is boosting the outlook for…company earnings.” Added another analyst, “When you look at the most recent financial crisis, one of the key features has been that emerging market countries weathered the storm extremely well.” Going forward, the consensus expectation is that emerging markets will soon account for the lion’s share of global growth.

For the most part, investors are still quite bullish on both stocks and bonds, despite – or perhaps because of – their amazing performances in 2009. The MSCI emerging market stock index has doubled over the past year, and the JP Morgan EMBI+ bond index rose 28% in 2009 en route to a record high. Still, there is concern that since emerging market stocks and bonds are basically in line with fundamentals, a further inflow of capital would push them into bubble territory. “Jerome Booth, head of research at Ashmore Investment Management, reckons that currency appreciation will be the main source of return for local emerging market debt portfolios in the medium term. ‘The only questions are when it starts and whether it happens fast or slow: with old world currency crashes or managed adjustment.’ ” This is problematic because it means at this point, investors may be chasing currency appreciation rather than direct asset appreciation.

Some investors have started to talk about bubbles, but these appear to be more regional in nature, and the handful of bears point to specific countries rather than dismiss emerging markets outright. For example, it’s now clear that there is a bubble in China’s property market, but not necessarily in the country’s stock market. The South African Rand, meanwhile appears to be overvalued, but the Central Bank of South Africa has announced that it will allow the Rand to continue appreciating. The Chilean Peso, meanwhile, is also poised to appreciate, ironically because of the recent earthquake, as Billions of Dollars aimed at relief efforts are already pouring into the country.

There’s much else that can be said about emerging market currencies at this point, and the near-term will depend largely on if/when/how the Greek debt crisis is resolved. While emerging market investors like to pretend that this is irrelevant, the fact is that they are still somewhat skittish, and even a minor crisis would send them running towards the exits.

By now, most investors are well aware of the acronym BRIC, which stands for the emerging market powerhouses of Brazil / Russia / India / China. When the idea was conceived in 2003, it seemed to make a lot of sense, as these four economies were at the top of the GDP ‘league tables,’ year-after-year. While China, India, and to a lesser-extent, Brazil, all continue to outperform, Russia has begun to lag. Perhaps Russia needs to be replaced as a member of BRIC. If the acronym is to be preserved, the only choices are Romania or Rwanda.

But seriously, last year Russia’s economy declined by 8%, compared to expansions of 6.5% and 8.3% in India and China, respectively. The Ruble fared equally poorly, relatively speaking. Compared to the Brazilian Real, which erased most of its 2008 decline, the Ruble’s rise offset less than half its previous losses. A similar picture can be painted with its. stock market. Not coincidentally, oil/gas prices have followed a similar pattern.

That the fortunes of Russia’s economy are too closely tied to energy exports is only half of the problem. The other half is as much cultural as structural. Russia’s economy is still largely oligarchical, and competition is lacking. Corruption is rampant, and the bureaucracy is out of control. In short, there is “a combination of corruption, poor governance, government interference in the private sector, and insufficient investment in the oil and gas sector,” which makes it unlikely that the Russian economy will embark on a stable course of development anytime soon. “What’s more, the warning signs of more economic trouble ahead are growing — for example, the increasing rate of non-performing loans on Russian banks’ balance sheets.” To put it bluntly, Russia’s economic prospects are somewhere between bleak and pathetic.

What about the Ruble, then? In the long-term, the Central Bank has pledged to shift its monetary policy away from micromanaging the Ruble. For the time being however, it remains focused on keeping the Ruble within a carefully prescribed range. Of course, it’s unclear whether the Central Bank sees its charge as defending the Ruble against a decline or against excessive depreciation, so currency traders shouldn’t read too much into it.

On the surface, the Ruble would seem to represent an excellent candidate for the carry trade. Despite being trimmed 10 times in 2009 alone, the Central Bank’s benchmark interest rate still stands at a healthy 8.75%. Moreover, the Central Bank has basically promised not to cut rates any further from the current record low. Remarkably, though, real interest rates are slightly negative, as Russia’s estimated inflation rate is 8.8%. Even more remarkably, this is the lowest level in decades! In other words, there is no interest too be earned from a Ruble carry trade, and the only upside is the appreciation in the Ruble.

And that ignores the downside risks, which are significant. After Russia defaulted on its debt in 1998, the international financial community basically lost confidence in the Ruble. Now, all of Russia’s government debt is denominated in foreign currency, mainly Dollars and Euros. Russian investors seem to harbor the same suspicions about their currency, and in 2008, the Ruble’s fall became self-fulfilling as investors transferred more than $150 Billion out of Russia, in the fourth quarter alone.

In short, I see very little upside from investing in the Ruble. There is no money to be earned from a Ruble carry trade. Betting on the Russian economy seems misguided. Betting on a continued rise in oil and gas prices would be better achieved by buying oil and gas futures directly. Meanwhile, any hiccup in the global economic recovery will certainly be met with an exodus of capital from Russia. Stick to the BIC countries instead.

In 2009, so-called commodity currencies – both individually and as a group – registered record-breaking gains. The Brazilian Real and the South African Rand finished up more than 30%, while the Australian and New Zealand Dollars finished up about 25% each, and the Canadian Dollar not far behind. While the outlook for 2010 is slightly less rosy (if only because of the law of averages), investors would still be wise to keep such currencies on their radar screen.

With the appreciations of 2009 canceling out the depreciations of 2008, currency markets are close to “equilibrium.” Going forward, then, investors will to find a rationale other than sheer momentum for making bets. Strong commodity prices represent one such rationale. This is not only the case because currency prices are rising and are underpinning the recoveries in the respective countries that are rich in their production, but also because economic recovery – and “normal” growth as well, for that matter – in many other economies is built precariously on debt and the expansion of sovereign money supplies.

Commodity currencies – and commodities in general – have always held allure as investment vehicles because of their tangibility and necessity. Simply, modern economies depend on commodities for their functioning. Thus, countries rich in natural resources would seem to represent safe bets, since they can be assured of demand both during periods of expansion and during economic downturns.  The strong performance of commodity currencies in 2009 underscores this point, since despite the fact that prices for many commodities are well below the record highs of 2008, these currencies are very close to their 2008 highs.

More specifically, the Canadian Dollar often tracks the price of oil; this correlation will probably only strengthen when the oil sands of western Canada are developed. While rich in many natural resources, it is gold that both Australia and South Africa are famous for, and to which their currencies are often tethered. Brazil and New Zealand deal in a more diverse array of commodities, and the Kiwi and Real often move in tandem with broad-based commodities indexes. There is also the Mexican Peso (oil), the Russian Ruble (natural gas), the Norwegian Krona (oil), and Chilean Peso (copper), but the correlations between these currencies and the respective commodities for which they are famous tend to be looser.

Of course, there are many other economies that are rich in natural resources, but for various reasons (lack of liquidity, fixed exchange rates), their currencies aren’t (as) appropriate for investing. Even the currencies I listed above don’t always reflect commodities prices. For example, Canada’s fiscal problems and South Africa’s monetary easing will arguably weigh down the Loonie and Rand, respectively, in 2010.

For commodity pure-plays, your best bet, then, would be to invest in the commodities themselves. Of course, commodities don’t pay interest and their costs associated with holding them (whether directly or indirectly) and they tend to fluctuate with greater volatility than currencies. Another option is the just-announced WisdomTree Commodity Currency Fund, an ETF composed of a basket of commodity currencies, many of which I listed above.

In October, I wrote about a “separation” that had taken place in currency markets between the “sick” currencies and the “healthy” currencies. At the time, I argued that the former category was comprised mainly of the Dollar and the Pound, with most other currencies healthy by comparison. While I still stand by this paradigm, I would like to revise it slightly. Specifically, I would like to add the Euro and the Yen to this list.

The recent blow-up surrounding the downgrade of Greece’s debt and subsequent explosion in the price of credit default swaps (which insure against default), have shined a spotlight on the fiscal problems of many of the EU’s member states, including Spain, Italy, Portugal, Ireland, and others. The situation in Japan, meanwhile, has been much more gradual, though equally dangerous: “In 1990, Japan’s total national debt load was 390% of GDP. Now it’s 460%. In the interim, the country has suffered sub-par growth and routine recessions.”

The fiscal problems of the US and UK governments as well as the debts of their citizens and companies have long been famous. For that reason, when the sick/healthy paradigm was first proposed, they were the two most obvious candidates. Having conducted some additional analysis, it’s now patently obvious that the same problems affect the EU and Japan. Given that their economies are also in weak shape, it doesn’t really make sense to group them in with the healthy currencies. Canada (and the Loonie, by extension) is also looking sickly, with its surging national debt and record budget deficits. The only reason it is being spared from the list is because of its richness in natural resources; in other words, it has something tangible that it can use to pay its debts.

Among the so-called majors, then, only the Swiss Franc, Canadian Loonie, Australian Dollar, and New Zealand Dollar get clean bills of health. A re-casting of the paradigm, then, would put the super-majors (Euro, Yen, Pound, and Dollar account for more than 75% of all foreign exchange activity) on one side, and virtually every other currency on the other. Given that national debt ratios and interest rate differentials diverge across the same boundary, it’s not hard to conjure a basis for this partition. “The IMF forecasts that gross government debt among advanced economies will continue to rise until 2014, reaching 114% of GDP, compared to just 35% for developing nations.” Adds another analyst: “If you look at currencies as a proxy for growth, then you can anticipate that emerging-market currencies will appreciate against the dollar.”

There is also a correction that is taking place within the group of sick currencies. Investors have come to realize belatedly that a Dollar sell-off doesn’t make any sense against the Euro and Yen, whose economic and fiscal situations could hardly be characterized as healthy. “Against the majors, we’re pretty close to the end, if we haven’t already reached the end of a bear market in the dollar,” asserted one analyst. Given that the Dollar’s demise had all but been taken for granted, this reconsideration isn’t coming natural. Volatility has surged to a 3-month high, and investors are responding by moving funds back to the US. Among the majors, then, it looks like the Dollar is still the “least worst” currency.

In 2009, the South African Rand was the world’s second best performing currency, after only the Brazilian Real. Since September, however, it has stagnated, and over the next year, it is projected to fall 10%. What happened?!

The Rand represents an interesting case study because it sits at the nexus of several trends. The first is the movement of funds into currencies with high interest rates. (The benchmark rate in South Africa is 7%). The second is the movement of funds into economies that are rich in natural resources. (South Africa is the world’s largest producer of platinum and the third largest producer of gold). The third is the movement of funds generally into emerging market economies. (South Africa’s economy was one of the world’s strongest [perhaps least weak is more apt] economies in 2009).

Thus, we should ask whether then Rand’s stagnation and projected decline is due to unique circumstances, or if instead it represents a reversal of one or more of these trends. Let’s start by looking specifically at South Africa. First of all, natural resource prices (gold and platinum) remain buoyant. Gold, as most of you are probably aware, is still hovering close to its (nominal) all-time high, while the price of platinum has resumed its upward trend, and is arguably closer to is all-time high than oil. In short, the pessimism can’t be explained by commodity prices.

How about interest rates? Well, South African rates are among the highest in the world. Despite a handful of cuts totaling 500 basis points over two years, the benchmark rate still stands at a healthy 7%, which is significantly higher than its counterparts in the developed world. Unfortunately, inflation in South Africa is also quite high (6%), which means real interest rates are closer to 1%. In addition, while Central Banks in other countries are contemplating raising rates, South Africa hasn’t ruled out cutting its benchmark further.

What about the fact that South Africa is considered to be one of the world’s vanguard emerging market economies? Well, this too, looks shaky. In contrast to the modest contraction in 2009 that made it a standout, 2010 may not be so kind. Analysts are expecting growth of only 2% in 2010, near the bottom of all economies, emerging market and industrialized. The US economy is projected to grow by 2.6%, in comparison.

With the exception of commodity prices (and perhaps the World Cup), there really isn’t much to be excited about when it comes to the South African Rand these days. For those looking for a growth play, South Africa isn’t it. For those employing a carry trade strategy, the Rand is also not an attractive candidate, since the positive interest rate spread it enjoys (small in real terms and shrinking) is hardly enough to compensate for the risk of currency depreciation. Those looking at Rand technicals (forgive me for not citing specifics here) must be worried that the Rand’s monumental surge in 2008 could only be followed by a correction. Not to mention the fact that various political factions in South Africa are calling for the Rand to be pegged to the Dollar at a rate 33% higher than current levels.

When you consider also that asset prices in emerging markets are now stalling, as investors fret about possible bubbles and contemplate bringing cash “home,” and also that the carry trade is slowly falling out of favor, it’s no wonder that analysts are gloomy about the Rand’s near-term prospects.

The Korean Won is up 32% since March, and 8.2% on the year. At the same time, it is 20% below is 2007 year-end level, as well as 13% weaker than the 2006 average of 955 and 15.5% weaker than the 2007 average.

Focusing only on the Won’s appreciation would probably cause some technical analysts to back off, while comparing it only to the highs of a couple years ago would lead others to pile in, without knowing examining other indicators. In my opinion, this is a situation in which technical analysis – because of the potential to send conflicting signals – falls short. Ergo, let’s turn to the fundamental picture.

The Korea Won has adhered closely to the overarching forex narrative. When the credit crisis struck, investors fled from Korea, and the Won lost 50% of its value practically overnight. With the return of risk-taking in the second quarter of 2009, however, the safe-haven appeal of the Dollar faded, and the Won rebounded strongly. With the potential end of the carry trade in sight, however, the Won has stuttered, and some analysts portend a decline in the near-term.

However, while many currencies will no doubt experience a correction if/when the Fed raises interest rates, the Korean Won probably won’t be one of them. Korean investments have certainly been buoyant of late, but not nearly to the same extent as in other emerging markets, where it could be argued speculative bubbles are now forming. In addition, Korean interest rates are hardly lofty; its benchmark rate is only 2%, hardly enough to justify a carry trade strategy in and of itself.

Instead, investors have been flocking to Korea for the economic fundamentals. Despite an appreciating currency, Korea’s trade surplus is on pace to hit a record $45 Billion this year, with a healthy $15-20 Billion forecast for 2010. In fact, the rising Won has has virtually no effect on exports, as Korean companies had prudently assumed that the Korean Won would be even more expensive (based on 2007 levels). In the automobile industry, for example, “New models being introduced now were designed and engineered two years ago to keep the company in the black even if the won strengthened to 900 to the dollar.” For that reason, analysts expect 2010 will be a banner year for the economy. After a modest expansion in 2009, GDP is projected to grow by 4.5-5% next year, the third highest among large economies, behind only China and India.

The Central Bank of Korea is also operating as though the Won will keep appreciating, irrespective of what happens to the carry trade. In one session last week, it intervened in forex markets to the tune of $500 million, with the goal of depressing the Won. With the recent expiration of a currency swap with the Fed, this is just as well, as Dollars could soon once again be in short supply. Korean monetary policy remains expansionary, but if the economy takes off in 2010 as expected, the Central Bank will have no choice but to raise rates and keep inflation within its target range.

In addition, there is now talk of turning the Korean Won into an international currency. ” ‘Korea has the opportunity to upgrade the won’s global status as a host country of the G20 2010 Summit.’ International use of the Korean won has been insignificant, although the nation’s share in international trade and finance has increased quickly,” analysts have observed. That the government of Korea is looking to promote the Won as a stable currency implies that it is comfortable with the prospect of further appreciation.

In short, the Won will probably be one of the standouts in 2010. Many currencies will suffer as changes in global monetary policy and the appearance of asset price bubbles cause investors to back off of the carry trade and exit certain emerging markets. South Korea won’t be one of them. With strong fundamentals and a growing profile, it’s no wonder that most analysts expect the Won to appreciate by another 10% in 2010.

Given that tomorrow is the first day of 2010, we won’t have to wait long to find out! On that note, happy new year!

Many analysts are pointing to Friday, December 4, as the day that logic returned to the forex markets. On that day, the scheduled release of US non-farm payrolls indicated a drop in the unemployment rate and shocked investors. This was noteworthy in and of itself (because it suggests that the recession is already fading), but also because of the way it was digested by investors; for the first time in perhaps over a year, positive news was accompanied by a rise in the Dollar. Perhaps the word explosion would be a more apt characterization, as the Dollar registered a 200 basis point increase against the Euro, and the best single session performance against the Yen since 1999.

Previously, the markets had been dominated by the unwinding of risk-aversion, whereby investors flocked back into risky assets that they had owned prior to the inception of the credit crisis. During that period, then, all positive economic news emanating from the US was interpreted to indicate a stabilizing of the global economy, and ironically spurred a steady decline in the value of the Dollar. On December 4, however, investors abandoned this line of thinking, and used the positive news as a basis for buying the Dollar and selling risky currencies/assets.

If you look at this another way, it reinforces the notion that investors are paying closer attention to the possibility of changes in interest rate differentials. The fact that the recession seems to have ended suggests that the Fed must now start to consider tightening monetary policy. This threatens the viability of the US carry trade – which has veritably dominated forex markets – because it literally increases the cost of borrowing (carry): “If the market thinks that Fed rates are about to move higher, the dollar will cease to be a funding currency and the inverse correlation between the dollar and risky assets will break.”

To be fair, it will probably be a while before the Fed hikes rates: “It’s a prerequisite to have a continuing decline in the unemployment rate for at least three months before the Fed considers tightening,” asserted one analyst. At the same time, investors must start thinking ahead, and can no longer afford to be so complacent about shorting the Dollar. As a result, emerging market currencies probably don’t have much more room to appreciate, since the advantage of holding them will become relatively less attractive as yield spreads narrow with comparable Dollar-denominated assets.

To be more specific, investors will have to separate risky assets into those whose risk profiles justifies further speculation with those whose risk profiles do not. For example, currencies that offer higher yield but also higher risk will face depressed interest from investors, whereas high yield/low risk currencies will naturally greater demand. You’re probably thinking ‘Well Duh!’ but frankly, this was neither obvious nor evident in forex markets for the last year, as investors poured cash indiscriminately into high-yield currencies, regardless of their risk profiles.

To be more specific still, currencies such as the Euro and Pound face a difficult road ahead of them (as does the US stock market, for that matter), mainly due to concerns over sovereign solvency. (Try saying that three times fast!) On the other hand, “Commodity-linked currencies such as the New Zealand, Australian and Canadian dollars [have] rallied sharply, and will probably continue to outperform as their economies strengthen and their respective Central Banks (further) hike interest rates.

It remains to be seen whether investors will remain logical in 2010, since part of the recent rally in the US Dollar is certainly connected to year-end portfolio re-balancing and profit-taking, and not exclusively tied to a definitive change in perceived Dollar fundamentals. Especially since they remain skittish about the possibility of a double-dip recession, investors could very easily slip back into their old mindsets. For now, at least, it looks like reason is in the front seat, making my job much less complicated.

While the Indian Rupee has risen more than 10%, since bottoming in March, it has increased only 4.3% in value in the year-to-date. Still, given how turbulent the first few months of 2009 were (a continuation of 2008, really), this modest appreciation was actually the third highest, among Asian currencies, behind only the Indonesian Rupiah and Korean Won.

For those of you that don’t regularly follow the Rupee (to be fair, I probably fall into this category), it has basically ebbed and flowed over the last couple years in accordance with risk appetite, hardly breaking ranks with other emerging market currencies. It rose to record highs in 2007, only to lose 30% of its value in 2008 as the credit crisis exploded. In 2009, as I pointed out above, it has staged a modest recovery, as investors have hungrily poured money back into emerging markets.

In fact, the benchmark Indian stock market index has risen 79% this year, its best performance since 1991. The bond market has also been performing well, thanks to a recent upgrade by Moody’s of the government’s sovereign local currency debt. “Moody’s said the move reflects ‘increasing evidence that the Indian economy has demonstrated its resilience to the global crisis and is expected to resume a high growth path with its underlying credit metrics relatively intact.’ ” As a result, foreign capital, some of which is bound to be speculative, is pouring into India. $100 million a day is being plowed into Indian stocks by foreign funds.

Analysts remain extremely optimistic about near-term prospects of India, partly because of its association with China (termed “Chindia.”) “India’s exports climbed in November for the first time in 14 months after sliding an average 21 percent since October 200…Overseas shipments rose 18 percent to $13.3 billion from a year earlier.” The result is blazing GDP growth, clocked at 7.9% in the recent quarter. Interest rates are already a healthy 3.25%, and can be expected to rise in the near-term as the economic recovery continues to cement itself.

Certain risks remain, namely that the government is spending money like there’s no tomorrow. It will borrow the equivalent of $100 Billion this year to finance a record budget deficit, equal to 6.8% of GDP. Compared to other economies, however, this is hardly remarkable, which is why India’s sovereign credit rating was upgraded despite the rising debt. “Moody’s said the government’s debt trajectory was stable and the government had high debt financing capability.”

Going forward, forex traders are relatively conservative in their forecasts for the Rupee, with consensus estimates for the currency to remain relatively flat during the course of the next year. This is surprising, given that it remains well off of its 2007 highs and thus, relatively cheap. Perhaps, its a sign that investors are nervous about the Indian government’s lack of a coherent long-term plan. Perhaps, it reflects uncertainty about bubbles that are forming in other corners of emerging markets. Probably, it shows that despite all of the progress that was made in 2009 towards containing the credit crisis, investors still remain vigilant, and are hedging their bets accordingly.

More about this next time.

Yesterday, emerging markets (proxied by the MSCI Emerging Markets Index) recorded their biggest fall since July, ending a week of solid gains. Still, this one-day slide of 1.4% pales in comparison to the nearly 100% gain that the index has achieved since bottoming last March. In other words, while investors might be starting to pull back, the direction of asset prices is still upward.

As for what’s causing this across-the-board appreciation, that was the subject of my previous post (Inverse Correlation between Dollar and Everything Else…Still), in which I merely stated the obvious; that the Fed’s year-long program of negative real interest rates and quantitative easing (i.e. wholesale money printing) has unleashed a flood of cash into global capital markets. Since we’re not just talking about the Dollar, here, it makes sense to point out that the Fed’s easy money policies have been copied by Central Banks in most other industrialized countries, including the UK, Canada, Switzerland, Sweden, and to a lesser extent, the EU.

As for why emerging market assets and currencies seem to be outpacing appreciation in other asset classes, that’s also not difficult to explain. First of all, by some measures, emerging market stocks have hardly outperformed other assets. Oil, for example, has risen by 131% in less than a year, to say nothing of other commodities. Still, by other measures, growth has been remarkable. Most emerging market stock indexes and currencies have fully erased (or come close to erasing) the losses recorded during the peak of the credit crisis. Bonds, meanwhile, have gone one step further. Yields are collapsing, and prices have exploded – by 25% in the last year, sending the JP Morgan Emerging Market Bond Index to a new record.

Is it safe to call this a bubble? Intuition would suggest so; given that all assets are rising across the board, without regard to particular fundamentals, it would seem that only a herd/bubble mentality could offer an explanation. Some analysts, in fact, have given up completely on fundamental analysis, instead using fund inflows (i.e. investor demand) to predict whether some emerging market assets will continue rising. As Nouriel Roubini (the NYU economist that famously predicted the credit crisis) summarizes: “Traders are borrowing at negative 20 per cent rates to invest on a highly leveraged basis on a mass of risky global assets that are rising in price due to excess liquidity and a massive carry trade.” P/E ratios are nearly twice as high in some emerging markets, compared to stocks in the S&P 500.

On the other side of the equation are the bulls and the efficient market theorists.”By historical price-to-earnings ratios — the ratio of stock prices to per-share profits — these levels can be justified, if the economic recovery continues. With massive layoffs, business costs have been cut sharply. “The hope is that when consumers and companies start spending, the added sales will drop quickly to the bottom line [profits].” Other proponents argue that the rise in asset prices is exactly what the Fed wants, since it implies that the markets are once again characterized by stability and liquidity.

Regardless of whether growth materializes, however, that doesn’t change the fact that the free ride can’t and won’t last forever. At some point, Central Banks will be forced to raise interest rates and start withdrawing Trillions of Dollars from global capital market. This will cause the Dollar to rise, and investors to rapidly unwind their carry trade positions. Warns Roubini, “A stampede will occur as closing long leveraged risky asset positions across all asset classes funded by dollar shorts triggers a co-ordinated collapse of all those risky assets – equities, commodities, emerging market asset classes and credit instruments.”

If the tech-bubble and real-estate bubble taught us anything, it is that there is no free lunch in the markets. It is not possible for all investors in all assets classes to simultaneously win. At least, in the long-term. In the short-term, meanwhile – it pains me to say this – let the party continue. My only warning is this: when the music stops, don’t be the one caught with your pants down…

On October 20, the executive office of the government of Brazil enacted an emergency measure, calling for a 2% tax on on all foreign capital inflows. And with one foul swoop, this year’s 35% rise in the Real had come to an end, right?

The tax certainly took investors by surprise, with the Brazilian stock market falling by 3% and the Real falling by 2%, the largest margins for both in several months. The tax is comprehensive and applies to essentially to all foreign capital deployed in Brazilian capital markets, whether fixed income, equities, or currencies. While the tax doesn’t apply to those currently invested in Brazil, the possibility that it would cause potential investors to stay away was enough to cause a sell-off.

The ostensible reason for the tax levy is to prevent a further rise in the Real. By most measures, the currency’s rise has been excessive, more than erasing the losses incurred during the credit crisis. The concern is that a more expensive currency will derail the Brazilian economic recovery before it has a chance to firmly get off the ground. “Brazil’s currency needs to weaken as much as 19 percent for sustainable economic growth, said Nelson Barbosa, the Brazilian Finance Ministry’s top policy adviser.”

According to cynics, however, the tax is a backhanded effort to raise revenue to fund a growing budget deficit. The government continues to spend money (perhaps to offset the negative impact on exports brought on by the Real’s rise) as part of its stimulus plan, but is increasingly tapping the bond markets to do so. The tax is expected to bring in an impressive $2.3 Billion over the next year, which could go part of the way towards fixing the government’s fiscal problems.

The real question, of course, is how the Real will fare going forward. The initial reaction, as I said, was ‘The Party’s over…‘ But investors with a longer-term horizon aren’t fretting. “In the medium term, the measure will have a limited impact. The fundamentals point to a stronger real, with commodities rising and the dollar weakening globally,” asserted one economist. While investors aren’t happy about paying an arbitrary 2% fee to the government, such pales in comparison to the 10%+ returns that investors still aim to reap from investing in Brazil over the long-term.

Ignoring the possible bubbles forming in Brazilian capital markets (admittedly, a dubious suggestion), Brazil still looks like a good bet, especially on a comparative basis. Interest rate futures point to a benchmark interest rate of 10.3% at this time next year, compared to ~1% in the US. Even after accounting for inflation and the 2% tax levy, the yield spread between Brazil and the US remains impressive. For that reason, the Real has already stalled in its expected fall against the US Dollar, standing only 1.7% below where it was on the day the tax was declared.

It’s unclear how determined the Brazilian government is towards pushing down the Real. The comments by its finance minister suggest that the consensus is that it is not slightly – but extremely overvalued. Thus, it’s likely that the government will enact other aggressive measures to prevent it at least from rising further. It continues to buy Dollars on the spot market, and is trying to make it easier for Brazilians to take money out of Brazil. It is not yet ready to tamper with its floating currency, but by its own admission, the “government was studying additional measures to regulate the heavy inflow of foreign investments and its impact on the country’s currency.”

There are also implications for other (emerging market) currencies. As I wrote earlier this week (”Central Banks Prop Up Dollar“) a number of Central Banks have already intervened or are currently mulling intervention in forex markets, to push down their currencies. You can be sure that other governments will be studying the situation in Brazil closely, with the possibility of implementing such policies themselves.

The Brazilian Real has been the world’s best-performing currency against the Dollar in the year-to-date, having risen 32% through the beginning of October. At this point, a mere 8% rise would send it crashing through the high that it touched last summer, prior to the collapse of Lehman Brothers.

The currency has now firmly returned to pre-credit crisis levels, suggesting that investors have once again become complacent and/or they believe the worst of the recession is over. For now at least, the data appears to support that notion. After contracting for two consecutive quarters, Brazil’s economy grew at a healthy clip of 1.9% in the second quarter, compared to the previous quarter. “Brazil is the first Latin American country to emerge from recession—and one of the earliest among the G-20 countries to have done so—following a 1.9% quarter-on-quarter expansion in economic activity in the April-to-June period,” summarized The Economist. To put things in perspective, the economy still contracted on an annualized basis, but such is to be expected considering the depth of the recession. Accordingly, the economy is projected to remain flat for the year in 2009 before returning to consistent growth in 2010.

Some commentators have explained this in terms of “decoupling,” the pre-crisis theory that held the global economy (and certain emerging markets) were no longer dependent on the US to drive growth. While the simultaneous recessions in virtually every economy initially seemed to disprove that theory, the fact that some (Brazil, China, etc.) are recovering faster than others is causing analysts to once again asset its merit. However, a Google News search of “Brazilian Real” displays a preponderance of stories that connect the Real with the Dollar, so it seems the decoupling is still partial at best.

The fact that Brazil’s economy entered the recession late and emerged early can be attributed to an exceptionally well-balanced economy.  Exports account for only 13% of Brazilian economic output. In addition, commodities comprise the majority of exports, for which demand remains relatively strong. Compare this to China, which derives 40% of its GDP from exports of namely consumer and industrial goods. Domestic consumption has also remained strong, such that Brazil hasn’t had to promote fixed investment and subsidize growth with government spending.

As a result, the government’s fiscal position remains extremely strong. Its bonds remain investment-grade, which is a unique accomplishment in a region known for defaults, especially during recession. Despite the comparative lack of risk, Brazilian interest rates remain extremely high, even when adjusted for inflation. The benchmark Selic rate currently stands at 8.75%, and there is speculation that the Central Bank will follow the lead of Australia, another commodity rich country, and tighten soon. Interest rate futures currently reflect a 1.75% rise in rates by January 2011.

Investors have taken the hint and poured funds into Brazilian capital markets. Equities are surging, thanks to demand for shares in Santander, a recent IPO and one of the largest in Brazilian history. Brazilian bonds are also selling well and are often oversubscribed (when demand exceeds supply) by investors. Due to such strong fundamentals, meanwhile, the word “bubble” hasn’t featured too prominently in investor circles…yet. At the same time, currency futures are pricing in a gradual decline in the Real over the next year, implying that its run could soon come to an end.

In forex, timing is everything. If I had written this post a couple weeks ago, the headline would read “Euro Touches 2009 High.” Perhaps if I had waited another week, it would have read, “Euro Approaching 2009 High.” But alas, I chose today to write about the Euro, and the headline I chose is probably the most appropriate under the circumstances.

On August 5, “The euro hit a high for the year against the dollar as stocks trimmed their losses in afternoon trading Wednesday despite a generally cautious tone in currency markets.” Analysts were careful to point out that the markets remained cautious and the Euro eased past – rather than smashed through – its previous high. Technical analysts would and have argued that this paved the way for the subsequently rapid decline: “The euro is testing the base of an ascending channel with daily momentum charts showing a ‘double top in overbought territory.’ ”

This notion might have some merit, considering that fundamentals arguably favor a continued Euro appreciation. “The economy of the 27-country European Union shrank 0.3 percent in the three months ended June 30, for an annual rate of roughly 1.2 percent. The 16 countries that use the euro registered a 0.1 percent decline for the second quarter, or an annual rate of roughly 0.4 percent.” While output remains well below its 2008 levels, the slight contraction represents a tremendous improvement from the first quarter, when GDP shrank by 2.5%.

“Underlying the strong reading were solid performances in France and Germany, each of which grew 0.3 percent in the second quarter, government data showed.” This is helping to offset further contractions in Italy and Spain, which have turned into economic laggards as a result of the housing bust. In addition, exports in Germany grew by 7% last month, and “Investor sentiment improved more than analysts had expected in August to its best level since April 2006.” On an aggregate basis, “the euro zone’s trade balance with the rest of the world rose to 4.6 billion euros ($6.5 billion) in June, compared to a flat balance in the same month last year,”

Still, explorers looking for bad news and/or cracks beneath the surface will have no difficulty finding them. German exports (and output in general remain down year-over-year. In addition, there are still trouble spots in the EU, notably in western Europe. “Already, the euro area’s unemployment rate stands at 9.4 percent, its highest level in 10 years, and the anemic growth of the coming quarters will not be enough to arrest the slide. That, in turn, could drag down consumer confidence or even generate political backlash in Europe, economists said.” Most worrying is perhaps that, “consumer prices in the euro area dropped 0.6 percent in July…” ‘Deflation is becoming entrenched in the euro area, which would be very bad for the economy.’ ” Good thing the ECB left some room to lower rates further.

The Brazilian Real has been one of the world’s best performers in 2009, having risen by a solid 25%. The currency is now close to pre-credit crisis levels, and is even closing in on an 11-year high. When you consider that only six months ago, most analysts were painting doomsday scenarios and predicting currency devaluations and bond defaults for the entire continent, this is pretty incredible!

The currency’s rise has been supported by a variety of factors, few of which are grounded in fundamentals. To begin with, while Brazil has staved off depression, it’s not as if the economy is firmly back on solid footing. The economy contracted by 5% in the first quarter, and forecasts for 2009 GDP growth still vary widely, from a slight contraction to modest expansion. Meanwhile, the economy is importing more than it exports, despite the rebound in commodity prices. “The central bank said the net trade result was based on $9.89 billion in receipts for exports and $12.72 billion in import payments overseas.”

“Investment inflows, meanwhile, totaled $33.88 billion, while outflows totaled $29.78 billion.” The disparity between investment and trade data goes a long way towards explaining the Real’s rise. Thanks to a recovery in risk appetite, foreigners have poured cash into Brazil at an even faster rate than they once removed it. As a result, Brazil’s “Bovespa stock index has risen 51 percent this year, the world’s 12th-best performer among 89 measures tracked by Bloomberg, as foreign investors moved 13.7 billion reais into the market through July, the most since the exchange began tracking data in 1993. Brazilian local bonds returned 37 percent in dollar terms after falling 13.8 percent in 2008.” The country’s foreign exchange reserves also just set a new record, surging past the $200 Billion mark.

Brazilian interest rates tell the rest of the story. Despite a gradual decline over the last decade (made possible by a moderation in inflation), Brazil’s benchmark SELIC rate stands at a healthy 8.65%, which is the highest in South America, after Argentina. Unlike Argentina – and the dozen or so other economies around the world that boast equally lofty interest rates – Brazil is perceived as relatively safe place to invest. Given interest rate levels in the western world, combined with the expectation that Brazil’s currency will appreciate further, investors are more than happy to accept a little bit of risk in order to earn an out-sized return.

Just like the Bank of Korea, Bank of England (both profiled by the Forex Blog in the last week), the Bank of Brazil is not happy with the resilience in its currency. “Brazil’s central bank said on Wednesday it bought $779 million on the spot foreign exchange market this month to Aug. 7 as dollar inflows to the country surged because of growing demand for local stocks and bonds.” This brings the total intervention expenditure to $9 Billion.

Unfortunately for the Bank of Brazil, the forces in the forex market are way beyond its control. “Dollar inflows to the country totaled $2.26 billion this month to Aug. 7, compared with inflows of $1.27 billion in all of July.” Analysts are also unconvinced, and are racing to revise their Real forecasts upward. One economist, caught completely off guard, just “changed his year-end real forecast to 1.8 from 2.5 at the start of the year. ‘The resilience of the Brazilian economy to weather this crisis has been spectacular,’ ” he explained.

Last year the Korean Won was one of the world’s weakest currencies- and that’s saying a lot when you you consider how many currencies tanked at the onset of the credit crisis. The Won lost nearly half of its value, driven by concerns that Korean creditors would be unable to pay their foreign debts. Since March, however, the currency has rebounded by an impressive 25%, as the government took action: “To avert a crisis, South Korea forged a dollar-swap agreement with the U.S., pumped money into the banking system, boosted fiscal spending, set up funds to replenish bank capital and cut rates.”

In the last quarter, South Korea’s economy grew 2.3%, the fastest pace in nearly six years, marking a significant turnaround from the 5% contraction recorded in the fourth quarter of 2008. Still, “South Korea’s economy will shrink 1.8 percent this year, the IMF said yesterday, revising a July prediction for a 3 percent contraction.” Exports, which account for 50% of GDP, have also recovered, and are now rising by nearly 20% on an annualized basis. Retail sales are climbing, and bank lending to households has risen for six straight months. Finally, “Stimulus measures at home and abroad are fueling South Korea’s revival. The government has pledged more than 67 trillion won ($53 billion) in extra spending, helping consumer confidence climb to the highest in almost two years in June.”

However, an inflow of speculative hot money – which has buttressed a rally in Korean stocks – threatens to undo the recovery. “With an anticipated increase in risk appetite, foreign investors may invest further in emerging-market equities, leading to more dollar supply,” said one analyst. The first half 2009 current account surplus set a record, with forecasts for the second half not far behind. Korea’s foreign exchange reserves, meanwhile, have recovered, and could touch $300 Billion within the next year.

Of course, the Central bank is not simply standing by idly. It has already lowered its benchmark rate to a record low 2%, and at yesterday’s monthly monetary policy meeting, it firmly refused to consider raising it for at least six months. Commented one analyst, “There is no urgent need to raise rates. The most likely course of action is that the Bank of Korea will wait until the economy fully recovers, and in particular, they will wait until the unemployment rate stops increasing.” Still, given both that interest rates remain above levels in the west (see chart below) and that the Korean Won is considered undervalued, funds could continue to flow in.

The Central Bank’s other tool is direct intervention in the forex markets, in order to depress the strengthening Won. But this, it is loathe to do: ” ‘It would be better to have a larger foreign exchange reserve in order to better deal with economic crises, but attempts to buy dollars to artificially boost the reserve volume could lead to accusations of currency manipulation, while excess won in the markets could stoke inflation,’ a high-ranking ministry official said.” Still, investors are growing increasingly nervous about this possibility:”A state-run bank that usually doesn’t participate much in the market bought some dollars at the day’s low, prompting speculation about a possible intervention, a local bank trader said.” Sure enough, after hitting the psychologically important level of 1,220 at the end of July, the Won dived. It has yet to bounce back.

Over the last year, Israel has quietly amassed one of the world’s largest repositories of foreign exchange reserves. On average, the Central Bank of Israel has purchased $100 million worth of Dollars every day since July 2008, bringing its total reserves to $52 Billion. The Bank’s goals are twofold: to sterilize the inflow of speculative money pouring into Israel in order to mitigate inflation, and to stem the appreciation of the Shekel.

Towards this latter, the Bank received a boost by the credit crisis, which caused an outbreak of risk aversion and sent investors rushing to shift funds into so-called safe haven countries/currencies. As a result, the Israeli stock market tanked, and the Shekel plummeted 30% in a matter of months.

Thanks to the recent upswing in risk appetite, however, the Shekel has bounced back, having risen 10% since April. While the Shekel still remains well off its its 2008 highs, the sudden rise still elicited the attention of the Bank of Israel, which announced that it would respond to the, “Unusual movements in the exchange rate that are inconsistent with underlying economic conditions, or when conditions in the foreign exchange market are disorderly,” by intervening heavily in the open market. It “is believed to have purchased between $1.5-1.7 billion this week so far.”

The Bank has also taken steps to inadvertently degrade its currency by lowering its benchmark interest rate to .5%, and buying bonds on the open market. “The central bank will have bought a total of 18 billion shekels ($4.7 billion) of bonds when it completes the program….The bank said in its statement that it does not intend to sell the securities it purchased and will continue buying foreign currency.” While its unclear whether the program has succeeded in stimulating the economy – which contracted by 3.7% last quarter – it has provoked inflation, which is still running in excess of 3% per year.

The forex markets have taken notice of both developments, sending the Shekel down 4% since Monday. Still, it’s not clear whether the Bank of Israel has any real credibility with traders. By its own admission, its intervention program is temporary: “It is clear that we won’t carry on buying foreign currency forever. Everybody understands that the central bank can’t beat the market, but sometimes the market does things that are not justified.”

Analysts, meanwhile, insist that the Shekel’s appreciation is not unusual, and that the intervention runs counter to fundamentals. “[The] market pressures strengthening the shekel against the dollar, are, in fact, consistent with underlying economic conditions. Fundamental economic conditions favoring the revaluation of the shekel include the accumulation of a balance of payments credit of $4.3 billion over the past thee quarters.” These analysts, then, are more concerned about rising inflation then about the competitiveness of Israeli exports.

Barclays, an investment bank, evidently subscribes to this school of though, and predicts the Shekel “will increase 2% after breaching their so-called resistance levels.” Merrill Lynch, meanwhile, sees the Shekel appreciating an additional 10% over the next year.

Emerging market currencies have soared over the last few months, thanks to a commensurate recovery in investor risk appetite. This trend is on full display in Eastern Europe, where, “The Hungarian currency, which has dropped 14 percent in the past year, has been the best performer in the past three months of the 26 emerging-market units tracked Bloomberg, having advanced 10 percent.” The Polish Zloty, meanwhile, can claim the distinction of best performer against the Euro, having risen 6% in the last month alone. [The chart below, which plots both currencies against the USD, is inverted].

This marks a stunning reversal for these currencies, both of which had fallen by over 40% over the previous six months. Explains one analyst, Poland “is back in favor after Prime Minister Donald Tusk pledged to support the zloty, the International Monetary Fund provided a $20.6 billion flexible credit line and the country posted the only positive quarterly growth rate among the EU’s 10 eastern members.”

As a result, investors are now pouring money into Poland at an even faster rate than they were extracting it during the height of the credit crisis hysteria. “Foreign investors poured 2.6 billion euros ($3.7 billion) into Polish bonds and stocks in April and May,” driving share prices up and risk premiums down. Incredibly, Polish assets still remain cheap by most valuation metrics. meanwhile, its currency has yet to erase the gap with its Eastern European counterparts that was opened last fall, and “Brown Brothers Harriman recommends buying the zloty for gains of 7.4 percent by yearend to 69.3 against Hungary’s forint and of 3.4 percent to 6.33 per Czech koruna.”

Speaking of Hungary, it is projected for “Gross domestic product to drop 6.7 percent this year, the most since 1991. Hungary, along with other emerging economies across Europe, has been hurt by a collapse in demand for its exports including Nokia phones and Audi cars. ‘The Hungarian economy is unlikely to recover from the current recession much before 2011.” The Central Bank recently moved to cut interest rates by a whopping 1%, and may cut rates by a further 2.5% before the year is out. Investors, evidently, are indifferent to this prospect, and continue to push Hungarian stocks, bonds, and currency back towards the levels of the bubble years.

This disconnect between economic fundamentals and asset prices seems to be playing out throughout the EU. On one front, “Bulgaria and the Baltic states of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania, also EU members, have had to resist pressure to devalue their currencies as eastern Europe’s recession takes its toll.” According to another source, “Nonperforming loans are rising across the EBRD countries and have doubled in the past year in Turkey, Romania, Ukraine and Albania, according to the EBRD. Recent data from national central banks show commercial banks in Romania are no longer collecting interest on more than 8% of the loans they’ve extended, and the figure is nearing 5% in Turkey, where credit cards are already defaulting at a double-digit pace.” At the same time, the Dow Jones Eastern Europe Stock Index just touched a 10-month high. Go figure.

In the last three months alone, the Brazilian Real has risen by an impressive 15% against the Dollar alone. What’s driving this impressive importance? The lead paragraph for one article offered the following encapsulation: “Brazil’s real climbed to the highest in more than nine months as stronger-than-estimated corporate earnings, rising equities and higher metal prices bolstered the outlook for Latin America’s largest economy.”

These factors certainly represent a good starting point for any analysis of the Real. As signs continue to emerge that the global economy – and China specifically – have turned a corner in their fight to overcome recession, commodities will likely continue to rally, which is excellent news for Brazil bulls. In addition, “May industrial production and especially retail sales came in stronger than expected, following incipient signs of improvement in labor and credit conditions, consumer and investor confidence, and inventory levels.” As a result, after a modest contraction in 2009 (the bulk of which took place in the first quarter), 2010 is expected to mark a return to solid growth, with estimates ranging from 3.5% to 4.5%, rising to 5% in 2011.

The Central Bank of Brazil, however, is not necessarily on the same page. Last week, it cut rates to a record low of 8.75%, in order to ensure that Brazilian monetary policy remains easy enough to support growth. While this is an unwelcome development for carry traders, there are a few mitigating circumstances. First, considering that Brazilian inflation is projected to average 4.5% in 2009, this still affords investors a solid 4% real return, without factoring in currency fluctuations. Second, Brazilian rates are still significantly higher than levels in industrialized countries, such that the interest rate differential which makes Brazil attractive has been carefully preserved. Finally, while precise forecasts vary, the Central Bank is expected to begin hiking rates as soon as the end of this year, with further hikes throughout 2010.

The Central Bank has also been busy on other fronts. Thanks to a healthy trade surplus, its foreign exchange reserves are burgeoning, recently touching a record $209 Billion. This figure well exceeds Brazil’s outstanding debt, which gives it great flexibility in determining how to allocate these reserves. Already, the Central Bank has begun to pare down its holdings of US Treasury securities, in search of higher-yielding alternatives. In addition, the Central Bank has taken to intervening regularly in the forex spot market, in a vain effort to stem the rise of the Real.

In the short term, analysts are now lining up around various technical levels, backed by little real fundamental analysis. “Moreover, without fundamental economic news showing better times ahead for the U.S. economy, principally, then the BRL1.90 support will remain cemented in place,” offered one analyst. “You show me some more good news and the support will be closer to 1.85,” argued another. It looks like traders are just looking for excuses to keep bidding up the Real.

Since touching a low in March, the emerging market class has risen by 50%, according to one measure. This led to concerns that another bubble was forming, a swift pullback ensued. The bulls, however, point out that valuations remain well below 2007-2008 bubble levels and that according to some measures, fundamentals are actually quite strong.

They have a point. With the exception of a few bailouts in Eastern Europe, emerging markets as a whole have actually weathered the storm quite well. As one analyst points out, “Governance has improved, many countries run current-account surpluses, foreign-currency reserves have grown, the middle classes are expanding and savings rates are high. Countries such as Brazil and Turkey have been able to cut rates during the crisis and still attract money.”

In fact, it wasn’t even until the collapse of Lehman Brothers in September 2008 (when some might say the credit crisis entered the worst stage) that investors even began to pull money from emerging markets. “During the first half of 2008, gross capital inflows to EMEs held up remarkably well, in many cases reaching 60–70% of the record high inflows in 2007…The fact that other investors (banks and bondholders) maintained their positions in EMEs may be attributed to a number of factors…including much larger official foreign exchange reserves and more robust banking systems in many cases.”

Accordingly, it could be argued that the recent rally in emerging markets could represent a “reverse correction”- an acknowledgment that the record decline was simply an overreaction. While stocks still remain well below their record highs, bonds are rapidly approaching pre-crisis levels. The spread between the JP Morgan EMBI+ index and US Treasury securities is now approximately where it was one year ago.

The naysayers, though, like to remind people that emerging markets are inherently risky: “The past decade or so alone has seen the Asian crisis, the Russian default and another round of restructuring in Latin America. Populist politics, poor fiscal management, a reliance on foreign-currency borrowing and fixed exchange rates were a magnet for trouble.”

Sound macroeconomic and fiscal policy notwithstanding, it’s clear that certain structural problems remain extant: “In February 2009 it became clear that the state of these economies was deteriorating faster than expected. Many borrowers faced challenges repaying or rolling over their loans. The loss of investor confidence suddenly exposed long-standing vulnerabilities, such as the widespread practice of foreign currency borrowing by households and by small and medium-sized enterprises.” In addition, emerging markets collectively remain heavily reliant on exports to drive growth, which is problematic given that, “The synchronised fall in exports intensified in the first quarter of 2009 with an average year-on-year decrease of around 25% in a set of larger EMEs. In some commodity-exporting countries, notably Chile and Russia, exports fell by more than 40% in the first quarter of 2009.”

The best way to account for this schism between capital inflows and economic uncertainty is a shift in the way emerging market investors view risk. Previously, it was default risk that predominated. Now, however, it is inflation and currency risk, as well as corporate credit risk, that guides investor thinking.

Since peaking in the beginning of June, the MSCI emerging markets index has fallen nearly 10%. While this is small potatoes compared to the 60% rise that the index cranked out in the previous three months, it could signal the beginning of a “correction.”

Around the peak a couple weeks ago, the Forex Blog reported that emerging market stocks had become quite expensive, relative to historical P/E ratios. It’s hard to say whether investors were/are operating under similar assumptions when the market pulled back, or rather if they have been driven by other factors. This is because emerging market currencies, like many other asset classes, have experienced a disconnect from fundamentals of late, such that the ebb and flow of risk aversion – rather than any substantive developments – now dictates the movement of asset prices.

Analysts looking for clues into why specific currencies were rising against the Dollar ignored the fact that virtually all currencies were rising, albeit some more than others. In other words, it was a Dollar-negative story as much as it was an emerging markets story. Likewise, risky investments are losing value across the board now that risk aversion is back in fashion, not because of a perceived change in emerging markets growth potential.

Still, there is much to be nervous about. Latvia still hasn’t dealt with its currency, which some experts think needs to be devalued by as much as 50%. Turkey has yet to sign a loan agreement with the IMF. Russia’s benchmark stock index fell 20% in one day. One of the best proxies for risk levels are credit default swaps, which function like insurance on bonds. If a company/country were to default on its bonds, a holder of a credit default swap contract would be compensated by the writer of the contract. Suffice it to say that credit default swap premiums, especially on emerging market debt instruments, are once again rising, as investors become more worried about the possibility of default.

Generally, the Yen is viewed as one of the most viable currencies during periods of heightened risk aversion. So is the Dollar for that matter, but the Yen has less baggage, vis-a-vis quantitative easing, etc. Sure enough, the Yen has pulled back tightly of late, rising almost 3% in one day against the Euro alone. [In the current market environment, I think it makes more sense to compare the yen with the Euro, since the two currencies are viewed as fulfilling different purposes for currency traders. The US Dollar, in contrast, is currently being driven by some of the same themes as the Yen, which can make it difficult to use this pair to distill changes in risk appetite.]

In short, as the global economy reaches a critical phase in the recession, investors will be looking for confirmation, either that a recovery is nearby or still far away. Right now, the consensus seems to have swayed towards the “recovery is faraway” side. However, a sudden uptick in a widely-watched economic indicator could send the pendulum swinging right back in the opposite direction.

What’s wrong with a little optimism? Well, nothing, in theory. In practice, however, unbridled investor optimism usually spells disaster. Consider that emerging market stocks (based on the MSCI emerging-markets index) now trade for 15x-earnings, the highest level since December 2007. Does anyone remember what happened next? The index plummeted 22% in a matter of months.

Here are some more statistics. The MSCI index is now at an eight-month high, following a record 61% rise since February. $12 Billion have poured into emerging markets in the last four weeks alone. Consider this against the backdrop that “Earnings at companies in the MSCI emerging-markets gauge trailed analysts’ estimates by an average of 41 percent in the first quarter.”

Meanwhile, “The extra yield investors demand to own developing nations’ bonds instead of U.S. Treasuries fell…to 4.19 percentage points, according to JPMorgan Chase & Co.’s EMBI+ Index.” The index has now erased nearly all of its losses from the last year. In some ways, this is even more unbelievable than the rally in stocks, since it indicates that despite the current recession and strained finances, investors are just as willing to lend to companies in developing countries as they were prior to the downturn!

Who cares about stocks- tell me about currencies! “Unsurprisingly stock markets in Asia have been highly correlated with regional currencies over recent months, with almost all currencies in Asia registering a strong directional relationship with their respective equity markets.” The Indonesian Rupiah is up 11% this year and the Indian Rupee is now up 4%, to highlight only a couple. Only a few months ago, these currencies were tracking at double-digit percentage declines!

A culling of analysts’ soundbites reveal the usual lack of consensus. On the one hand, “The pattern signals an ‘imminent’ drop;” “Fund flows at their extremes are contrary indicators;” and “Investors are starting to doubt the sustainability of how much longer this very sharp rally can continue.” But for every bear there’s a bull: “There’s a lot of money looking for decent returns and that’s going to continue driving emerging markets.” In short, you can find literally thousands of analysts and their respective forecasts to support either hypothesis.

I would argue that the sustainability of this rally (both in stocks and in currencies) hinges on a return to GDP growth in emerging markets. [The IMF forecasts 1.6% growth in 2009 and 4% in 2010]. But given the gap between share prices and earnings, I’m frankly not convinced that investors actually care about whether the rally is supported by actual data. Instead, investors have complacently been swept up by the same herd mentality that produced the bubble of 2008, and could potentially lead to a rapid and painful collapse in what looks to be the bubble of 2009.

You may have noticed that the phrase “seven month high” appears quite frequently in recent Forex Blog posts, regardless of the currency being discussed. I offer this preface as context for Pound’s recent rally because it suggests that the factors driving the Pound are hardly unique from the factors driving other currencies. In other words, “It’s a mixture of a dollar-weakness story and a global-growth story.”

Of course, it would it be unfair to so glibly dismiss the Pound, so let’s look at the underlying picture. On the macro-level, the British economy is still anemic: “Gross domestic product dropped 1.9 percent in the latest quarter, the most since 1979, according to the Office for National Statistics. The International Monetary Fund now expects the British economy to shrink by 4.1 percent in 2009.” Without drilling too far into the data, suffice it to say that most of the indicators tell a similar story.

The only relative bright spots are the housing market and financial sector. Mortgage applications are rising, and there is evidence that housing prices are slowing in their descent, perhaps even nearing a bottom. Optimists, naturally, are arguing that this signals the entire economy is turning around. History and common sense, however, suggest that even if the most recent data is not a blip, it’s still unlikely that the UK will able to depend on the housing sector to drive future growth. Besides, there is anecdotal evidence to suggest that foreign buying (due to favorable exchange rates) is propping up real estate prices, rather than a change in market fundamentals.

The stabilization of financial markets is also good for the UK, as 1/3 of its economy is connected to the financial sector. “Sterling is basically a bet on global financial well-being…Now that the banking sector has stepped away from the Armageddon scenario, the prospects for London and the U.K. economy look better.” But as with housing, it’s unlikely that the financial sector will return to the glory days, in which case the UK will have to turn elsewhere in its search for growth.

What about the Bank of England’s heralded attempt at Quantitative easing? While it’s still to early to draw conclusions, the initial data is not good. In fact, the most recent data indicates that half of the bonds that the BOE bought last month (with freshly minted cash) were from foreign buyers, which causes inflation without any of the economic benefits from an increase in the domestic flow of money. Given that S&P recently downgraded the outlook for UK credit ratings, it’s no surprise that foreigners are moving towards the exits. In short, “With underlying weakness in money and credit – plus large gilt sales by overseas investors – we doubt that quantitative easing is playing much direct role in the economy’s possible turnaround,” summarized one analyst.

If you ask me, the Pound rally is grounded in nothing other than naive technical analysis, which relies on indicators that are largely self-fulfilling. In other words, if the Pound seems like it should rise, than it probably will, simply as a result of investor perception. “Citigroup Inc. said in a report last week the pound is ‘among the most undervalued major currencies…’ Barclays Plc predicts it will rise as much as 18 percent against the dollar and 11 percent versus the euro in the coming year. Goldman Sachs Group Inc. sees a 23 percent gain versus the dollar and 15 percent advance against the euro.” Call me skeptical, but it’s hard to understand what kind of analysis underlies these predictions other than simple intuition. Sure the Pound was probably oversold, but is a 20% rise is two months really justified?

The U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission data indicated a slight downtick, but “big speculative players continue to hold large net short positions in the pound versus the dollar,” which suggests that the savviest investors are not yet sold on the rally. Emerging markets offer growth and higher yield. Commodity currencies, such as the  Australian and New Zealand dollars, rise in line with energy and commodity prices. Someone please tell me where the Pound fits into this?

The rally in emerging markets that has unfolded over the last couple months has been especially kind to Brazilian investments, as well as to its currency, the Real, which “has gained 26 percent since March 2, the biggest advance among the six most-traded Latin American currencies. In May, the real climbed 11.2 percent, the strongest advance since April 2003.” The currency has already touched a seven-month high, returning to a level last seen before the collapse of Lehman Brothers send a shock wave through global financial markets.

There is now a strong amount of circularity in the relationship between the Real and Brazilian stocks/bonds, such that both are strengthening simultaneously. Accordingly, foreign (institutional) investors are rushing back into Brazil almost as quickly as they left: “More than $7.7 billion of foreign money has entered the Brazilian stock market in the year through May 12.” The direct shift of funds from the US to Brazil as especially staggering: “Central bank data on Wednesday showed net inflows of U.S. dollars to Brazil totaled $2.06 billion this month through May 15.” [Granted this data is now two weeks old, but the trend remains intact].

Naturally, there are analysts (I would call them apologists) who point to positive economic developments and a resurgence in commodities as the underlying cause for the Real’s increase. In my opinion, this explanation is patently absurd, given that Brazil’s economy is forecast to shrink in 2009, along with every other economy.

The “real” reason for the Real’s performance is the country’s relatively high interest rates. The Central Bank has cut interest rates by 350 basis points this year, bringing the benchmark selic rate to 10.25%. To put things in perspective, this rate constitutes a record low for Brazil, whereas in most other economies it would be considered unfathomably high. Futures markets indicate that rates will fall further over the course of the year, the extent of which depends on how well the Brazilian economy performs in the second half. [It is forecast to grow by 3-4% in the fourth quarter]. Still, even a cut to 9% would still preserve a lofty differential between Brazil and the rest of the world.

The Bank of Brazil has repeatedly conveyed its dissatisfaction with its rising currency, even though it remains well below 2008 levels. It has purchased Dollars on the spot market every day for the last month, and is reputed to be considering a foreign exchange tax on foreign capital inflows, both to no avail. “We expect this flow of dollars to continue to go to Brazil, we expect the economy to grow. So, the probable scenario in terms of currency is that we are going to see the real gaining,” summarizes one analyst.

At this point, it seems the only thing that would dent the implicit optimism of foreign investors is another shock to global financial markets- one of similar magnitude to the Lehman bankruptcy.

According to a recent Reuters poll, investors are increasingly bullish on emerging market Asian currencies, including the Taiwan dollar, Indonesian rupiah, Singapore dollar, Malaysian ringgit, Philippine peso, South Korean won, and Indian rupee. The Thai Baht wasn’t covered by the poll, but given its strong performance over the last few months, it seems safe to include it in the bunch.

This uptick in sentiment is somewhat unspectacular, since “The Bloomberg-JPMorgan Asia Dollar Index, which tracks the 10 most-active regional currencies,” has now risen for almost three consecutive months [See chart below]. Leading the pack are the Taiwan Dollar and South Korean Won, which recently touched five-month and seven-month highs, respectively. “The Korean currency has climbed 28 percent since reaching an 11-year low of 1,597.45 in March.”

Investors are now pouring money back into Asia at rapid clip. “Asia ex-Japan received $933 million in the week ended May 20, the most among emerging-market stock funds, bringing the total this year to $6.9 billion.” Meanwhile, the “The MSCI Asia Pacific Index of regional stocks climbed 22 percent this quarter” while Chinese stocks are up 45% since the beginning of 2009.

But it’s unclear – doubtful is a better word – whether this rally is supported by economic fundamentals. One commentator summarized this contradiction as follows: “Improved sentiment has led to a massive resurgence in flows to emerging markets, irrespective of the underlying data, which remains weak. Investors are going out of dollars to riskier markets, riskier currencies.”

Let’s drill down into some of the data. Chinese exports fell 15% in April. Japan’s economy contracted 15% in the most recent quarter. Singapore’s exports are down 20% on an annualized basis. The South Korean economy is projected to shrink by 2% this year. The Central Bank of Thailand just cut its benchmark interest rate to an unbelievable 1%. The only bright spot economically is Taiwan, which is benefiting both from improved economic ties with China and a healthy current account surplus. I suppose everything is relative, as “developing Asian economies will grow 4.8 percent in 2009, even as the world economy contracts 1.3 percent” according to the International Monetary Fund.

The notion that the rally is not rooted in fundamentals is shared by the region’s Central Banks, which clearly realize that economic recovery will be much more difficult in the face of currency appreciation. One analyst argues that, “Until the signs of global economic recovery become more convincing, central banks will unlikely tolerate significant currency appreciation.” The Central Banks of South Korea, Taiwan, and Indonesia have already actively intervened to hold their currencies down, while Malaysia and Singapore (discussed in a Forexblog post last week) have also intervened for the sake of stability.

As a result, this rally could soon begin to lose steam. “A ‘correction’ in regional currencies is ‘appropriate’ following recent gains,” said one analyst. Another has called the rally “overdone.” Still, Central Banks and economic data pale in comparison to capital flows and risk/reward analysis. In short, these currencies (and other investments) will continue to find buyers for as long as there are those hungry for risk. Citigroup, whose “Asia-Pacific foreign-exchange volume may rise about 10 percent from the first quarter,” is bullish. A representative of the firm declared: “Fund managers are still ’sitting on lots and lots of cash’ so the pickup in volumes will continue.”

The rally in emerging markets and accompanying revival of the carry trade can be seen clearly in the Hungarian Forint, which can now claim the distinction of being the world’s best performing currency. You’re probably scratching your head and/or rolling your eyes, but bear with me.

Beginning last July, shortly before the peak of the credit crisis, the Forint began to fall rapidly. It quickly lost more than half of its value against the Dollar, but then again so did a bunch of other currencies. The more relevant comparison is with the Euro, against which the Hungarian currency also fared quite poorly. Despite a 13% rally over the last two months, the Forint is still down 27% from its high last summer.

This is understandable, since Hungarian economic fundamenals are commensurately poor. “Household consumption is shrinking due to a drop in wages and narrower borrowing opportunities, while investments are hit by a lack of funds and a global economic downturn.” Factor in an 18.7% annualized decline in exports, and the result is a 6.4% decline in GDP for the most recent quarter.

Hungary’s economic woes have not gone unnoticed. “The International Monetary Fund, the EU and the World Bank have pledged 20 billion euros ($27 billion) of emergency loans to support Hungary, the biggest aid package for a European nation alongside Romania.” While financial markets have stabilized, credit default swap rates indicate investors are still concerned about the possibility of default. Meanwhile, Hungary has now been officially rejected (for the second time) by the European Monetary Union, such that its doubtful that Forint will ever be absorbed into the Euro.

Why, then, is the Forint rallying? The answer is simple: high interest rates. The benchmark Hungarian interest rate is a lofty 9.5%. While other Central Banks have been busy lowering rates to try to boost economic growth, “The Monetary Council of the central bank voted unanimously on April 20 to keep rates on hold at 9.50 percent.” Given the precarious financial situation, its economic policymakers are concerned that a drop in interest rates could precipitate capital flight and a currency crisis.

An exasperated Deputy Central Bank Governor explained to reporters, “As long as Hungary is considered such a vulnerable country, our interest rates cannot be lower than South Africa’s or Turkey’s; it’s not the Czech Republic, Slovakia or Poland you should compare us to.” She has clearly been paying monitoring the forex markets and knows that now is not the time to gamble with investors’ sudden return to Hungary.

Analysts remain divided over whether the upward trend in the Forint is sustainable. For its part, “Deutsche Bank recommends investors sell the euro against the forint on bets the rate difference will help the Hungarian currency gain 10 percent to 260 per euro in two to three months from 286.55 today.” However, it will be difficult for the economy to stage a serious economy for as long as the currency is rallying, which is why a survey of analysts revealed a median forecast of a medium-term decline in the Forint.

While the Singapore Dollar hasn’t been punished to the same extent as its counterparts, the currency was nonetheless dealt a strong blow by the credit crisis, falling 20% in a matter of months, after peaking in 2008. For its part, the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS)- which functions as the Central Bank- couldn’t have been happier. The currency had fallen just enough to almost completely offset its rise during the leadup to the crisis.
Now, with a global stock market rally underway and a modest economic recovery taking shape on the horizon, the Singapore Dollar has quickly erased almost half of its slide. The Central Bank naturally, is alarmed, and is threatening to intervene. While the MAS, itself, has thus far denied such a possibility, insiders suggested that “The Monetary Authority of Singapore will buy the U.S. dollar “‘f it falls below S$1.4700, around S$1.4690…’ [which] roughly equates with the strong end of the undisclosed trade-weighted band that the MAS uses to guide the Singapore currency.” Curiously enough, the Singapore Dollar beat a retreat this week, after rising all the way to $1.45.

The Singapore Dollar is generally considered a bellweather for the currencies of neighboring countries. Singapore is seen as having a model economic policy, and the Singapore Dollar is somewhat immune from the shocks that affect other currencies because its fluctuation is controlled via a loose band by the city-state’s Monetary Authority. The exchange rate is basically used in lieu of conventional monetary policy ( i.e. adjusting interest rates), although market supply/demand plays a significant role. You can think of the MAS as performing a sort of smoothing function.

In this way, the MAS is acting similarly to the Swiss National Bank, which professes to manipulate its exchange rate in order to prevent deflation- not to increase the competitiveness of exporters. According to a top MAS official, “We keep our monetary policy [based] on the medium-term inflation outlook and taking into account growth prospects. We don’t use the currency for competitiveness because it is not sustainable to align currencies just for competitiveness.” This is somewhat plausible as the MAS intervened similarly during the last downturn, in order to forestall a systemic drop in prices.

As always, the line between maintaining price stability and increasing demand is thin, since the latter is in fact used to bring about the former. This is especially true with Singapore, whose economy is largely dependent on exports to drive growth, and hence has been hit especially hard by the downturn. “In the first quarter of 2009, calculated on an annualized basis, Singapore’s economy contracted at a record rate of 11.5 percent from a year earlier, and 19.7 percent from the previous quarter.” [See Chart] As a powerful symbol of just how bad things are, the New York Times recently reported that over 700 cargo ships are docked near and around Singapore, idling as a result of slackened trade. Maybe the MAS noticed…

On Wednesday, the latest addition the Wisdom Tree family of currency ETFs officially debuted, and in its first two days of trading, the Emerging Currency Fund (CEW) returned an impressive 2.2%. It’s not worth annualizing this figure, but suffice it to say that its performance is already turning heads.

According to the prospectus, CEW “is an actively managed exchange-traded fund that seeks to provide the investor with a liquid, broad-based exposure to money market rates and currency movements within emerging market countries.” Investors will gain exposure both to the currencies themselves and to their respective short-term interest rates, via “short-term U.S. money market securities and forward currency contracts and swaps of the constituent currencies…designed to create a position economically similar to a money market security denominated in each of the selected currencies.”

Chosen from three regions (Latin America, Africa/Europe/Middle East, and Asia), the inaugural 11 currencies are as follows: Brazilian real, Chinese yuan, Chilean peso, Indian rupee, Israeli shekel, Mexican peso, Polish zloty, South African rand, South Korean won, Taiwanese dollar and Turkish new lira. According to WisdomTree, these currencies were selected not necessarily for economic reasons, but rather because of their relatively high liquidity and low correlation with each other. In addition, “The selected currencies are equally weighted in terms of dollar value at each currency assessment date and after each quarterly re-balancing,” to reflect fluctuations in exchange rates. Naturally, WisdomTree reserves the right to rejigger the portfolio in terms of constituent makeup, but this would probably only be effected to improve overall liquidity, rather to replace an under-performing currency.

The advantage of CEW lies in its automatic diversification, such that investors gain access to a variety of currencies but only have to transact in the fund itself. WisdomTree also points out that, “Emerging market currencies often move independently of domestic stock, bond and money market investments…[and] exhibit low correlations to other alternative asset classes, such as commodities and gold.” The chart below [courtesy of CEW promotional materials] makes this point indirectly, and it probably comes as a surprise that US stocks are collectively more volatile than individual emerging market currencies. “Incorporating a 10% allocation of emerging currency into balanced portfolio mixes of the domestic stocks and domestic bonds over the last ten years…raised annual returns by an average of 0.66%, while lowering overall portfolio volatility” in a hypothetical exercise.

“In terms of taxation, WisdomTree says normal capital gains rules will apply to the sales of fund shares. However, income from the portion of the fund invested in U.S. money market securities usually will be taxed as ordinary income, while the tax treatment of the local currency forward contracts could vary with the situation.” The fund’s expense ratio, meanwhile,  is .55%.

If the preceding paragraphs read like a sales pitch, I apologize, as that was not my intention. At the same time, I’m personally quite positive about CEW (as well as ETFS in general, for that matter), since it provides quick and easy exposure to a bunch of quality currencies, eliminating the need to buy them separately. Not to mention that this fund is debuting right when both the carry trade and emerging markets (and their currencies) are coming back in vogue.

I’m not sure if the timing was deliberate, but it could certainly have been worse. It’s tough to say whether the market rally of the last two months is sustainable, but if the decline in risk aversion that ignited the rally continues to obtain, it will be good for CEW.

Yesterday, the South African Reserve Bank (SARB) lowered its benchmark interest rate by 100 basis points to 8.5%. Since December, the Central Bank has now cut rates by 3.5%, from a high of 12%. [As an aside, the SARB uses a repo rate to conduct policy, as opposed to a discount rate. In theory, a repo rate is slightly unique in that it reflects the rate at which the Central Bank will repurchase government securities from commercial banks. The Federal Funds Rate, in contrast, "is the interest rate at which private depository institutions (mostly banks) lend balances (federal funds) at the Federal Reserve to other depository institutions." In practice, both rates function as modulators of liquidity in the financial system.]

“The outlook for domestic economic growth remains subdued, with no indications of a quick recovery,” offered the SARB as a rationale for the rate cuts. Activity in manufacturing and mining, two of the cornerstones of the South African economy, have plummeted since the inception of the credit crisis, along with exports and retail sales. As a result, “Central bank Governor Tito Mboweni said April 7 he would ‘not be surprised‘ if the nation’s economy shrank for a second consecutive quarter in the three months through March, following a 1.8 percent contraction in the fourth quarter.” Meanwhile, South Africa’s producer price index (PPI) has declined for seven consecutive months. Coupled with a moderation in food and energy prices, inflation is no longer perceived as a serious problem.

The South African Rand actually rose on the news of the rate cut, as part of a trend that has seen the currency rise nearly 40% since touching a low of 11.7 Rand/Dollar in October. In April alone, “South Africa’s rand, the laggard of 27 major world and emerging-market currencies last year, rallied 12 percent against the dollar.” This reversal of fortune is due largely to the recovery of risk appetite and consequent return of investors to the carry trade.

South Africa is especially poised to benefit from this trend for a couple reasons. Primarily, the Rand’s advantage lies in in interest rate differentials. Even if the SARB hews to economists’ predictions and cuts its repo rate by another 100 basis points, the differential will still be tremendous, as virtually every industrialized country has lowered rates close to zero. In addition, South Africa is perceived as a relatively safe place to invest, especially relative to interest rate levels. According to one trader, “We’re seeing a re-assessment of the rand’s relative value because of the fact that South Africa’s economy and financial system are relatively more sound than is the case in many other countries.”

As Bloomberg News summarized, you can’t stand in front of a freight train: “Emerging-market stocks are poised for their best month in 20 years as evidence the global recession is easing spurs investor demand for higher-yielding assets.”

In the end, you can’t fool the markets and carry traders ignore fundamentals at their peril. The recent election of Jacob Zuma as South African Prime Minister “hardly adds to confidence in the South African economy.” In addition, South Africa continues to maintain a sizable current account imbalance, “at 7.4 percent of gross domestic product last year.” Despite declines in February and March, the deficit touched a “record 17.380 billion rand deficit in January” and the markets are “expecting large deficits to persist this year as exports come under pressure.”

The value of the Thai Baht continues to erode, and the currency has now fallen 10% in the last year. It recently touched a two-year low against the Dollar. Weighing primarily on the Baht is the global economic crisis, so it is hardly unique in this regard. “The government has forecast the economy will contract by 3% this year, which would be the first time it has shrunk in more than a decade.”

Thailand’s economy is heavily reliant on exports, a category which also includes tourism.  “The tourism council forecast revenue for the industry this year could drop 35 percent to only 350 billion baht in 2008,” and “The commerce ministry announced that Thai exports fell by 23.1 percent in March year-on-year, the fifth consecutive month of decline.” This is certainly the worst economic crisis to hit since the 1997 Southeast Asian economic crisis, but the country is in much stronger shape this time around. ” ‘Both at the national government level and in the private sector, the balance sheets are much stronger.’ ” As a result, Thailand has thus far managed to stave off a run on its currency, even despite a decline in investment- both direct and speculative. The Thai stock market is sagging; according to one commentator, “Fund flows could continue to drag the market down as we see profit-taking in this region.”

The government and the Central Bank are working in tandem to relieve the situation, but there isn’t much optimism surrounding their efforts. The Minister of Finance recently announced an (attempted) expansion of Thailand’s own version of an economic stimulus plan, to $40 Billion. Funding will be provided for “investment projects in a wide range of industries such as logistics, agriculture and energy.  The Bank of Thailand recently slashes rates to 1.25%, tying a record low that was set in 2003.

However, “The decision to cut the rate by a quarter percentage point to 1.25 percent came as more than 40,000 protesters seeking to oust the government were massed in the capital Bangkok.” The political unrest in Thailand is old news at this point. It began over a year ago when then-Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra was ousted in a military coup. Since then, there have been an unending series of protests and counter-protests aimed at keeping him out or bringing him back. Basically, no one is happy with the current situation, but still there are no signs of political change. The Prime Minister has refused requests to resign, and Thaksin remains in exile outside the country.

The political uncertainty isn’t really weighing on the Baht, but one analyst warns this could change: “The baht is likely to underperform in the near term due to political tensions, which have prevented the government from undertaking aggressive fiscal stimulus.” In other words, while tourism has been impacted by the protests, the biggest problem is that the government is being hamstrung in its efforts to forge a strong response to the economic crisis.

Only two months ago, the Wall Street Journal published an article under the headline “Slowdown hits Emerging Markets.” Buttressed with economic data and testimony from economists, the piece underscored the notion that “The global downdraft is hitting the world’s emerging economies with a speed and ferocity few imagined possible.” On Monday, the same newspaper published an article entitled “Emerging Markets Go on a Tear,” exploring how emerging markets have outperformed in 2009.

That these stories are built around opposing themes is not surprising, but given that they were published only two months apart, it seems impossible that they could both be meaningful. A deeper analysis, however, reveals some powerful insights, namely that investors seem to be flocking back to emerging markets despite poor fundamentals.

It’s difficult to pinpoint the start of the rally, but it accelerated in earnest in early March for no apparent reason other than investors arbitrarily decided to collectively increase risk-taking. This seems like a classic case of ‘making one’s own reality,’ given that the economic picture continues to deteriorate, and “positive” developments were limited to an increase in government intervention and stimulus plans. But, perception is everything in financial markets, and if investors collectively decide they want a rally, then a rally will indeed obtain.

In the case of emerging markets, the rally has certainly surpassed all expectations. “A Morgan Stanley index tracking emerging-market stocks is up 12% in dollar terms. By contrast, its index following stocks in developed markets outside the U.S. and Canada is down 9%.” Meanwhile, “The extra yield investors demand to own developing nation debt instead of U.S. Treasuries narrowed 10 basis points, or 0.1 percentage point, to 5.68 percentage points.

Emerging market currencies have also enjoyed a nice bounce, led by an across-the-board 7% gain in the Mexican Peso, Brazilian Real, and Russian Ruble over the last five weeks. Analysts at both Citigroup and Goldman Sachs are now encouraging clients to pile back into such currencies, evidently confident that the rally is sustainable: “Valuation has become very attractive in many cases, in particular in historically higher-yielding currencies.”

The concern, however, is that this rally is a product of financial and technical factors, and is not underlied by macroeconomic fundamentals. Exports and confidence have tumbled at a record pace, such that “J.P. Morgan forecasts at least 11 emerging economies — among them South Korea, Taiwan, Russia, Turkey, and Mexico — will shrink in 2009, with another 4 posting no growth.” Instead, investors are using low prices and a lull in bad news – rather than a change in economic tenor – as a basis for buying.

Of course, the bulls will selectively point to data which paint a different picture.  “From monetary easing to joint fiscal policy to capital becoming less constrained at banks, the potential for a recovery in 2010 and 2011 seems more likely.” Some analysts have argued that they believe emerging markets have been, and will continued to be cushioned from the worst of the financial crisis due to their conservative financial sectors, but this argument strikes me as self-justification. Others point to the $500 Billion increase in capital that the IMF (via the G20) will potentially make available to developing countries. As I wrote in a recent post, however, much of the perceived increase is redundant and/or has not yet been guaranteed by rich countries.

Personally, I fall in the “cautiously pessimistic” camp, summarized as follows: “The economic picture is cloudy enough that a number of investors say it is worth adopting a more nimble approach in the short run.” In other words, a wait-and-see approach is probably more prudent than following the crowd, especially since it was the crowd that as originally responsible for the bubble.

This week, the Yen continued its decline against the Dollar and Euro, dipping well below 100 Yen/Dollar en route to a six-month low. Most analysts attribute this trend to a pickup in risk aversion: “Some kind of optimism is returning to the market and that’s putting pressure on the yen,” explained one analyst succinctly.

An ongoing rally in stocks and commodities is reinforcing investor attitudes that the economic recession is under control, and is stimulating risk-taking. In other words, the same forces that contributed to the unwinding of the carry trade during the beginning of the credit crisis, are now working in reverse and causing investors to flee from the Yen en masse. “As long as stocks can retain their buoyancy… risk appetite and risk-based trades will be in vogue and investors will continue to add to and rebuild yen short positions.”

According to the most recent International Monetary Market report, “Short positions on the currency have been building up for three consecutive weeks, and are now at levels last seen in the late summer of 2008,” which means the Yen’s slide has basically become self-fulfilling. From a technical standpoint, “A move above 101.00 yen was technically significant as it was a 38.2 percent Fibonacci retracement of its decline from a peak in 2007 to its 13-year low in January.” Even domestic Japanese investors have signaled their bearishness by taking advantage of last week’s Yen upswing by making “aggressive purchases of foreign bonds.”

From a fundamental standpoint, the decline in the Yen makes sense, given the abysmal economic situation in Japan. In fact, the “Minutes from the Bank of Japan’s March meeting showed members of the central bank were leaning toward cutting the bank’s economic forecast in April, and that they believed the BOJ would need to continue to provide substantial liquidity to financial markets that they see as still under substantial stress.”

The government is finally responding to the economic crisis, having most recently unveiled a $150 Billion plan, to supplement the $100 Billion initiative announced earlier this year. “If implemented competently, these steps could stabilize the domestic economy and stop the bleeding in labor markets.” At the same time, the intertwined tailspin in confidence and spending suggest that the government’s efforts could be in vain.

While equity investors have reacted positively – pushing the stock market into positive territory for the year- bond and currency traders are understandably concerned. Yields on Japanese bonds are already rising in anticipation of $100 Billion in bonds that the government will have to issue in 2009 alone. Naturally, the burden to purchase these bonds will fall on the Bank of Japan, which will be forced to print money and contribute to the further devaluation of the Yen in the process.

Ultimately, the duration of the Yen’s slide depends on the duration of the global stock market rally. If you believe that the global economy has turned a corner, then the Yen is done. If, on the other hand, you are inclined to side with George Soros, who opined recently that “It’s a bear-market rally because we have not yet turned the economy around,” then there is still cause for Yen bullishness.

The Korean Won is among the biggest losers of the credit crisis, excluding Iceland of course. The currency has fallen 40% against the Dollar over the last year, even adjusting for a 10% rise in the last week. South Korean Finance Minister Yoon Jeung-hyun blames currency speculators, pledging that “The government will not sit idle when the foreign exchange rate is excessively tilted toward one direction or when there are speculative forces.”

Perhaps understanding that it cannot possibly hope to defend its currency against such a broad tide of determined speculators, the Central Bank of Korea has all but given up on intervening in forex markets. “South Korea was the catalyst for the shift away from defensive intervention. After spending 22 percent of foreign reserves from August to November to stem won losses, Yoon…said Feb. 25 that its weakness may be an ‘engine for export growth.’ ”

There is some plausibility to this argument, since South Korean economic fundamentals (as bleak as they are) probably don’t support such a precipitous decline in the Won. In fact some South Korean exporters have benefited from the weak currency, with companies such as Hyundai and Samsung growing revenues and increasing market share. Still, the global recession has impelled foreign consumers to cut back on spending, with the end result that “A double-digit fall in exports in the last three months of 2008 seriously undermined industrial production, [and] a 16% plunge in facility investment was an equally important factor in the 5.6% contraction in Korea’s GDP from the previous quarter.”

Ultimately, the Won’s decline is being driven by an acute shortage of Dollars. A relatively large portion of Korean public and private debt is denominated in foreign currency. The collapse in liquidity spurred by the credit crisis and consequent decline in bank lending have made it very difficult for South Korean borrowers to procure the requisite Dollars to repay their loans, causing a large imbalance in the supply and demand for the Dollar within Korea. Even more alarming is that $150 Billion of such debt will come due in the immediate future. “The government stresses that foreign debt maturing within a year amounts to 77% of its foreign exchange holdings, meaning Korea can cover its obligations. However, no other Asian nation that investors care about has such a high ratio of short-term external debt (on a remaining maturity basis) to foreign exchange reserves.”

South Korea recently extended a swap agreement with the US, which enables it to exchange up to $30 Billion in Won for Dollars. Investors are evidently hopeful that this represents a step towards easing the Dollar shortage, as the news caused the Won to appreciate by the largest margin in months. Borrowing costs for Korean firms remain high, and the odds remain tilted against them. Unless the US financial system stabilizes and/or Korea is able to run a current account surplus (as a result of increased foreign investment), liquidity will remain a problem.

The main fly in the ointment was Mexico’s current account deficit, which ballooned from $6 billion in 1989 to $15 billion in 1991 and to more than $20 billion in 1992 and 1993. To some extent, the current account deficit was a favorable development, reflecting the capital inflow stimulated by Mexican policy reforms. However, the large size of the deficit led some observers to worry that the peso was becoming overvalued, a circumstance that could discourage exports, stimulate imports, and lead eventually to a crisis.

A sudden shift of funds out of a currency is called a speculative attack in the economics literature…Rather than waiting for the central bank’s reserves to run out through a gradual process of current account deficits, speculators who realize that a devaluation is inevitable will attack the currency through massive capital outflows as soon as they command enough resources to force a devaluation.

Growth in Poland, the biggest eastern European economy, will slow to 2 percent, the slackest pace since 2002, the European Commission forecasts. Latvia, a former Soviet republic, will contract 6.9 percent.

After nearly six months of currency depreciation, the nations of Asia have finally been spurred to action. Japan, China, and South Korea have joined together with the 10 ASEAN economies to form a $120 Billion pool of foreign exchange reserves, which contributors can tap into to protect their currencies. The goal is to prevent capital flight and currency weakness from engendering the same kind of financial crisis that only 10 years ago ravaged Asia. Fortunately, this time around, the 13 countries possess a combined $3.6 Trillion in reserves, which can be deployed in forex and securities markets in order to restore investor confidence. Ironically, the bulk of these reserves belong to China and Japan (who are also funding a large portion of the forex pool), both of whose currencies remain strong in spite of the crisis. Bloomberg News reports:

Read More: Asia Agrees on Expanded $120 Billion Currency Pool

In the last few weeks, investors have waded cautiously back into emerging markets. Spurred in part by the Obama economic stimulus plan and pending US investment in Citigroup, investors have evidently been persuaded to take on more risk. The Japanese Yen, accordingly, has already begun to beat a retreat from the highs it reached earlier this year. If this trend continues, the US Dollar could become the next “victim.” On the other side of the equation are currencies such as the South African Rand, which have benefited from a renewed interest in yield, as well as increased monetary stability driven by lower inflation. Ultimately, this movement of capital can just as easily reverse itself, which it no doubt will at the next economic hiccup. Bloomberg News reports:

Read More:  South African Rand Gains as Investors Return to Riskier Markets

The credit crisis continues to exact a devastating toll on the economies of Eastern Europe, and capital flight has caused the region’s currencies to plummet precipitously. This has prompted internal debate in countries such as Poland, Czech Republic, and Latvia – to name a few- as to whether the effects of the crisis would have been so blunt had they adopted the Euro. While certainly Euro membership would have spared them from currency instability, it would not have necessarily facilitated financial and economic stability, as Italy, Spain, and Greece have learned the hard way. Regardless of whether Eastern European countries are politically willing to commit to the Euro (itself doubtful), this debate is largely moot, since the credit crisis has all but eliminated their ability to meet the preconditions of membership in the short run. The New York Times reports:

Read More: Currency Issues Weigh on Eastern Europe

Prevailing wisdom has long held that the accumulation of foreign exchange reserves has helped stabilize emerging market economies by cushioning them against economic shocks. The economies of Asia, in particular, were praised by economists for responding to the 1997 Southeast Asian economic crisis by building up their reserves to guard against runs on their currencies in the future. In hindsight, however, the accumulation of reserves may have actually contributed to the current economic crisis, by facilitating the formation of massive global economic imbalances. High savings rates in Asia, for example, enabled western countries to run continuous current account deficits. Now, the chickens are coming home to roost, and developing economies are once again finding themselves vulnerable to recession, since their forex reserve policies came at the expense of developing domestic economic bases. The Times of India reports:

Re-balancing means that Asian countries must stop piling up ever-rising forex reserves (and trade surpluses). Such reserves represent excessive saving, excessive exports and insufficient imports.

Read More: High forex reserves can worsen recession

Most of the speculation in recent weeks concerning forex intervention has focused on Japan and Russia. The Central Bank of Mexico, meanwhile, has slipped quietly into forex markets to protect its battered Peso, which has fallen over 30% over the last six months. It's unclear whether Mexico's efforts, combined with support from the US, will be enough to stem further decline, considering that economic fundamentals continue to deteriorate. At the very least, the move serves as a symbolic warning to market bears, that the Central Bank is monitoring the situation, and is prepared to defend its currency accordingly. Mexico could also serve as a case study for other emerging market economies, most of which have witnessed minor runs on their currencies since the inception of the credit crisis. At the same time, it would be a mistake for them to assume that they could protect their currencies at fixed exchange rates, given Russia's recent failure to achieve such a result. Bloomberg News reports:

Russia “bungled by trying to draw a line in the sand,” said [one analyst]. “Emerging market currencies won’t see any relief till crisis is past.”

Read More: Mexico’s Central Bank Intervenes to Halt Peso Slide

The Russian Ruble is sliding faster and faster, having most recently reached a pace and level not seen since 1998, when Russia famously defaulted on its debt, and the currency lost more than half of its value in under a week. The Central Bank is keen to avoid a similar catastrophe this time around which is why it has diligently controlled the Ruble's descent, rather than allow the currency to reach an equilibrium in the spot market; such would likely result in a precipitous drop and perhaps a loss of confidence in the nation's banking system. Unfortunately, given the current m.o. of consistent but gradual devaluation, foreign investors are hesitant to own the Ruble, conscious of its inevitable decline. In fact, futures prices indicate that it is due to fall another 11%, with experts suggesting that this could be implemented over a time period as brief as one month, in order to return the economy to "normal" functioning as quickly as possible. Bloomberg News reports:

The falling ruble is causing banks, companies and individuals to hoard foreign currency. "All the attention of the people is focused on the forex market. Companies aren’t buying supplies, they’re investing their rubles in dollars instead because the play is too attractive."

Read More: Ruble Drops to Pre-1998 Crisis Low on 6th Devaluation This Year

A steady decline in risk aversion has taken place over the last few months, such that investors once again appear willing to own riskier assets, especially in the developing world. If this continues, increasing demand for emerging market assets would probably be accompanied by currency appreciation. While there are several ways that investors could conceivably profit from this trend, there is an overlooked strategy: currency options. Specifically, some traders have begun to write "out of the money" put options- the equivalent of selling insurance to investors that wish to protect themselves from further declines in emerging market currencies. Those who specialize in currency options, however, have noticed declines in both implied volatility and the risk-reversal rate, which together suggest that such a possibility is now perceived as less likely. Regardless of whether you plan to employ such a strategy, it's worth paying attention to currency options prices, as they represent valuable snapshots of a given currency's perceived health. Bloomberg News reports:

Traders quote implied volatility, a measure of expected price swings, as part of setting options prices. Options are contracts granting the right to buy or sell a specific amount of a security in a given time span.

Read More: Currency Options Best Bet on Risk Aversion Drop, Barclays Says

Despite a late 2008 rally on the basis of improved risk tolerance, the prospects for emerging market currencies remain grim. The decline in commodity prices have deprived many such countries, namely Russia and Venezuela, of much-need export revenue. Moreover, the credit crisis and consequent abatement in inflation paved the way for massive interest rate cuts, which made investing in emerging market securities much less attractive. Current-account balances have turned from surplus to deficit in a matter of months, and governments have turned to foreign lenders to make up the difference. Unfortunately, confidence in such currencies is still quite low, forcing governments to issue debt denominated in USD, rather than local currency. Even despite this accommodation, investors remain hesitant. Bloomberg News reports:

Lower levels of foreign investment in these countries will make it harder for policy makers to cut current-account deficits, leaving their currencies “potential flashpoints” for losses.

Read More: Emerging Currencies to Drop, Morgan Stanley Says

The Central Bank of Vietnam finally acceded to reality and devalued its currency, the Vietnam Dong, by 3%. Prior to the change, the Dong (as well as its neighbor, the Chinese Yuan, which has also experienced a decline) was one of the few relative winners of the credit crisis. Perhaps this was because the currency had already depreciated significantly in recent years (35% since 1994), as well as because it remains fixed to the Dollar and hence it is impossible for the markets to short it when it becomes overvalued. Vietnam continues to be plagued by double-digit inflation and a surging current account imbalance, which suggest that the currency will probably have to suffer an additional 'correction' before reaching a sustainable level. In fact, the black market rate remains well below the official rate, reports Bloomberg News:

The devaluation followed five interest-rate cuts by the central bank this quarter to help bolster the economy. Policy makers last lowered the benchmark rate on Dec. 19 by the most ever this year to 8.5 percent, from 10 percent.

Read More: Vietnam Devalues Dong to Fight Slowdown, Help Exports

Yesterday, the Forex Blog reported that the Yen could soon peak as a result of renewed interest in the carry trade. On the other side of this equation are emerging market currencies, most of which offer interest rates well above their industrialized counterparts. The spread between South Africa's benchmark interest rate and the rates of Switzerland, Japan, and the US, now exceeds 10%. As a result of near-zero rates in these countries, investors have once again taken to scouring the earth for yield. Apparently, government stimulus plans and monetary incentives have restored confidence in risk-taking. South Africa is especially poised to benefit, as it is one of the world's largest producers of gold, which recently resumed its upward trend. Bloomberg News reports:

“South African interest rates are very high relative to other markets and that yield differential is underpinning the rand at a time when trading is very thin.”

Read More: Rand Rises Versus Dollar on Bets Zero Rate in U.S. Boosts Carry

The perfect economic storm continues to brew in Russia; the financial crisis is sapping demand for Russian securities, and a decline in the price of oil (as well as other commodities) has turned the balance of trade from surplus to deficit. As a result, Russian banking officials seem resigned to a depreciation in the Ruble, but are understandably averse to a sudden devaluation, which could shock the economy into complete collapse. Nonetheless, in the last week, the currency recorded record drops as the Central Bank took advantage of Dollar weakness to adjust the band in which the Ruble is permitted to fluctuate (read: decline). Given continued weakness in the price of oil, combined with a faltering economy and surging domestic unemployment, investors should continue to expect precipitous drops in the Ruble, as it sinks to a sustainable level. Bloomberg News reports:

Troika Dialog, the nation’s oldest investment bank, and Goldman Sachs Group Inc. predict the ruble will have to weaken by at least 20 percent against the basket to reignite an economy stymied by a 62 percent drop in oil prices since July.

Read More: Ruble Falls Most Against Euro Since 1999 on Double Devaluation

In a recent interview, three emerging market fund managers aired a common view: the asset class which comprises emerging markets represents a solid investment. Their reasoning is that the tremendous declines wrought in emerging market equities and currencies over the last six months were caused primarily by technical factors, rather than a substantive change in the long-term economic picture. In other words, this drop was effected by foreign investors that withdrew money en masse from emerging markets in order to meet fund redemptions and repay loans denominated in Dollars. At the same time, economic analysis, as well as common sense, dictate that an increasing portion of future global growth will be realized in the developing world. Many such countries have invested wisely in infrastructure and built up sizable foreign exchange reserves. Consequently, they are well-positioned to survive the current downturn intact. Accordingly, once investors "come to their senses" and recover their collective appetite for riskier investments, it probably won't be long before emerging market assets and currencies are bid up to pre-crisis levels. Forbes reports:

"Current valuation of emerging markets is the lowest it has been since I began investing in this asset class in 1988. Based on trailing 12-month earnings, emerging markets is trading at a price/earnings ratio of only 7.7x, and a price/book of 1.3x (with return on equity at 17%)," [observed one analyst].

Read More: Emerging Markets: What To Buy

While the credit crisis has led some skeptics to presage the end of the European common currency, some in Central Europe are still eager to join it. However, their cause may have been jeopardized by the credit crisis. The economies of Poland, Hungary, and Czech Republic-the three most qualified candidates to join the Euro-have been plunged into turmoil. Capital flight has wrought precipitous declines in all of their respective currencies. In light of record volatility and continued bearish sentiment, some analysts have argued that the Euro represents the key to their salvation. The only problem is that the credit crisis is scrambling their ability to meet the necessary pre-requisites to membership. Bond yields trade at an unacceptable spread to those of Euro members, inflation has yet to be tamed, budgets have shifted from surplus to deficit, and reserves are shrinking faster than they can be replenished. And yet, there are those who remain optimistic. Bloomberg News reports:

"In Poland and Hungary the crisis has increased the public support for euro adoption and I'm keeping my bet that both countries will enter ERM-2 in the second half of 2009. The more euro-skeptic Czechs may do it a year later," said [one analyst]. 

Read More: Euro Dreams Fade for Zloty, Forint, Koruna on Slump

According to the most recent monthly data, the foreign exchange reserves of most developing countries are disappearing faster than they can be replenished. As a result of the global credit crisis, central banks have taken to deploying vast sums of capital towards the dual ends of stimulating their economies and propping up their currencies. The latter can be especially expensive, as countries like Ukraine and South Korea can attest. Both countries have spent 20% of their respective reserves to halt the decline of their currencies, and both abandoned such a strategy after accepting its futility. Ironically, there seems to be a direct correlation between dwindling forex reserves and a depreciating currency, as investor nervousness and currency devaluation reinforce each other. There is one bright spot in this quagmirem, however. The Guardian reports:

China says its reserves are continuing to rise, with the chief economist at the National Bureau of Statistics telling Reuters they would exceed $2 trillion by the end of the year. Beijing [will] not resort to “panic selling” of reserves, instead maintaining a “prudent and responsible” stance.

Read More: Emerging reserves haemorrhage as currencies fall

Having already fallen 12% in 2008, the Russian Ruble is well on is way to fulfilling analysts' predictions that it will fall 30% before stabilizing against the US Dollar. While the credit crisis has not been kind to Russia, the Ruble is suffering more from a collapse in the price of oil, which recently slipped below $50 a barrel. For reference, the government needs the price of oil to stay above $70 in order to balance its budget. Now, the country's current account surplus is eroding almost as quickly as its foreign exchange reserves, which it is deploying in a vain effort to forestall the decline in the Ruble. The response of the Central Bank has been to widen the band within which the currency is permitted to fluctuate; in practice, this is tantamount to defeat, and is sure to trigger a further decline. Bloomberg News reports:

"The central bank is letting it fall because of oil, reserves depletion, all of that," said an emerging-markets currency strategist. "We can probably expect to see more of this."

Read More: Ruble Falls on Speculation Central Bank Scaling Back Defense

The economic situation in Indonesia is similiar to that of several other emerging market economies, characterized by falling export revenue, shrinking government coffers, and capital flight. The consequent decline in the Indonesia Rupiah has almost become self-fulfilling. In other words, as skittish investors rush to move their capital out of Indonesia for fear of complete collapse, they are simultaneously making such a collapse more likely. Indonesian policy-makers are conscious of this tendency of nervousness to feed back into itself, and are delicately trying to avoid shocking the markets. On the one hand, they want to limit the decline of the Rupiah. On the other hand, they don’t want to take actions that will make investors nervous, even if it means making it more difficult for them to short the currency. The International Herald Tribune reports:

Last week, Indonesia changed its currency rules to make it more difficult to buy foreign exchange. The measures, mostly affecting Indonesians rather than foreigners, would make speculative bets against rupiah depreciation more difficult.

Read More: Indonesia undergoing currency crisis

Having endured years of abuse from free-market advocates and the International Monetary Fund, fixed exchange rate regimes are officially back in vogue. This is because the sole currencies not to have been affected by the recent surge in forex volatility are those that are pegged to the US Dollar, namely the Chinese Yuan and Hong Kong Dollar. Both countries have stood by calmly as other emerging market economies have witnessed speculators lay waste to their currencies, driving them down by 5% or more per day. Fortunately, both HK and China have significant stockpiles of foreign exchange reserves, which virtually eliminates any possibility of a speculative attack. Iceland, meanwhile, was forced to abandon a half-hearted attempt at a currency peg when it ran out of cash to defend it. Of course, a fixed currency can also be a disadvantage, as exports may become expensive relative to competitors that experience declines in their currencies. Given the current economic climate, however, it seems HK is happy to give up this potential upside in favor of stability. The Wall Street Journal reports:

Like Japan, Hong Kong was a source of funds for the carry-trade. Turbulent markets have taken that strategy apart, and investors who borrowed in Hong Kong are pulling money back into the territory at a rapid clip.

Read More: Hong Kong Loves Its Currency Peg

Russia is currently facing its worst currency crisis since 1998, when it defaulted on its debt and the Ruble plunged 71% against the Dollar. This time around, Russia is being attacked on two fronts: the sell-off in emerging markets and the collapse in the price of oil. Both trends occurred suddenly and with such force that the economy swung from current account surplus to deficit in a matter of months. Meanwhile, the Central Bank of Russia has spent nearly 1/5 of its $500 Billion in forex reserves to slow the proportional decline in its currency. If the price of oil and the stock market continue to decline in tandem, the Central Bank will no doubt find it increasingly difficult to defend the currency, and a massive devaluation would inevitably follow. The Central Bank has already hiked rates; it is running out of options. Bloomberg News reports:

Today’s central bank decision will prompt "further runs on deposits," wrote [one group of] analysts in a research note today. "Flight from rubles now is the key factor to watch."

Read More: Ruble Devaluation Concern Triggers Stock Plunge, Rate Increase

Volatility in forex markets has surged to unprecedented levels. In the words of one analyst, "Moves in the currency markets witnessed during just a few hours of trading…’are typically what we see in a quarter.’ " The currencies of both emerging market countries and industrialized nations have been battered indiscriminately, as investors have fled to locations perceived as less risky, namely the US and Japan. On the one hand, a stronger Dollar has almost completely alleviated inflation in the US and will hence make it easier for the Fed to continue cutting interest rates. On the other hand, US exports, previously one of the few bright spots in the sagging economy, will become less competitive. Then there is deflation, long since relegated to history textbooks, but now once again considered a threat. Countries whose currencies have declined, meanwhile, are finding it difficult to convince investors to stay put, and have taken to deploying their forex reserves as a stopgap measure to stabilize their respective economies. The Wall Street Journal reports:

To combat these sharp moves, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, and India collectively have drawn down their reserves by more than $75 billion since the end of September, selling dollars to protect their currencies, according to Win Thin of Brown Brothers Harriman.

Read More: Currency-Price Swings Disrupt Global Markets

In a bold but perhaps necessary move, the Central Bank of Brazil recently announced an injection of $50 Billion into forex markets intended to stem the 30% fall in the value of the Brazilian Real that has taken place so far this year. Unfortunately for Brazil, the forces tugging on emerging market currencies far exceed the potential counter-efforts that such a country is capable of waging. Call it a lack of confidence, or a sudden aversion to risk. Either way, investors are fleeing regions that only months ago, they were still flocking to in droves. High interest rates, strong economic fundamentals, even capital injections and liquidity initiatives are no match for the financial tsunami. In addition, it’s not as if the Brazilian economy is necessarily in a good position to emerge from the crisis unscathed, as its neighbor Argentina could soon default on its debt…again. Bloomberg News reports:

The real has sunk 31 percent from a nine-year high of 1.5545 reached on Aug. 1 as the global crisis has driven down prices on the country’s commodity exports and eroded demand for higher- yielding, emerging-market assets. Only the South African rand, down 35 percent, has fallen more over that time.

Read More: Brazil to Pump $50 Billion in Currency Market to Shore Up Real

Emerging Market currencies are becoming the latest victims of financial derivatives, proving Warren Buffet’s claim that such contracts represent "financial weapons of mass destruction." Apparently, companies throughout the developing world (although predominantly in Latin America) had used derivatives to bet on the strength of their home currencies, relative to the US Dollar. Given their record appreciation over the preceding few years, such bets probably appeared risk-less. As investors have fled emerging markets en masse, however, such currencies have tumbled. This has forced companies that had bet against the Dollar to rapidly unwind their derivative positions, which only caused their currencies to decline further. The Mexican Peso and Brazilian Real, to name the most prominent examples, are now in a virtual tailspin. Another "short squeeze" is probably not far away. The Wall Street Journal reports:

[Investors] had begun pulling money out of Mexico and other emerging markets. Since Aug. 1, the peso has dropped 24% against the dollar, and in October careened through its biggest daily drops since a 1994 currency crisis.

Read More: Big Currency Bets Backfire

The credit crisis has not been kind to emerging market currencies. Virtually all of them have declined by double digits (in percentage terms) against the USD. Such currencies may receive a boost from the International Monetary Fund, which recently announced plans to make more cash available, especially on a short-term basis. Previously, many analysts and policymakers had written off the IMF as irrelevant, since private sources of capital had gradually become available to countries that previously depended on the IMF for funding. However, as investors flee emerging markets en masse, such countries once again find themselves in dire straits. Iceland, for example, is likely to take advantage of the offer, as it has exhausted most of its other options for shoring up its ailing economy and currency. Bloomberg News reports:

The IMF has been at the center of some of the biggest financial bailouts of the past three decades, helping broker solutions to the Latin American debt crisis in the 1980s and rescues for Mexico, Russia, Brazil and Asia in the 1990s.

Read More: IMF Speeds Access to Funds as Emerging Markets Buckle

It seems the Korean Won has (temporarily) bottomed out, reversing one of the largest declines in its history. The currency’s 5% daily jump has made it one of one of the few bright spots in Asia this week, where stock markets and currencies collapsed due to a complete lack of confidence. Analysts attribute the jump to a rumor that Korean regulators are trying to ferret out speculators, who are believed to have driven the Won down over the last few months. As a result, a sudden surge of foreign capital poured into Korea, as investors returned with renewed vigor, confident that the Korean government is prepared to deal domestically with the crisis that is gripping global financial markets. Bloomberg News reports:

South Korea’s won completed its biggest jump since March 1998 after a meeting among financial regulators prompted speculation that the government will step up support for the currency.

Read More: Korea’s Won Has Biggest Gain Since 1998 After Regulators Meet

Developing countries (in Asia) responded to the 1997 financial crisis by prudently building up massive stocks of foreign exchange reserves to mitigate the risk of another crisis. In August, the reserves of eight of these countries (excluding China and Japan) promptly fell by a combined $36 Billion, setting a monthly record in the process. The flow of capital into the developing world has gradually reversed itself over the last year, as investors have fled emerging markets as part of a broad strategy to limit exposure to risk. Central Banks have responded by using their reserves as a means to restoring confidence and to propping up their respective currencies. Unfortunately, such countries remain vulnerable to the whims of institutional investors; while they can use their reserves to cushion the fall, they cannot prevent a collapse if that is what the markets ultimately will. Fortunately, the sheer size of their reserves makes such a repeat regional financial crisis unlikely. The Business Standard reports:

"Uncoupling is a myth. The region still depends on industrial countries to fuel its growth. If the global slowdown extends beyond 2009, the repercussions for the region could be severe."

Read More: Forex reserves of 8 Asian countries down by $36 bn

Over the last two months, the South African Rand has plummeted, losing nearly 20% of its value against the US Dollar en route to a five-year low. It seems the currency has become the latest victim of the credit crisis and the resulting widespread risk aversion. The sudden exodus away from the carry trade, for example, has affected the Rand disproportionately, as many foreign investors had come to South Africa over the last few years to take advantage of the country’s 12% interest rate. Now, the country is facing a horrible crisis, and is worrying about its ability to finance its current account deficit, which already exceeds 7% of GDP. Accordingly, analysts predict the Rand will continue to drop. Bloomberg News reports:

"The portfolio flows we have seen over the past couple of years are going to dry up and we will not be able to fund the deficit with the portfolio flows." The rand may slide to 9.20 rand by the end of the year…

Read More: South African Rand Declines to Six-Year Low on Credit Turmoil

This week, the Korean Won continued its downward slide, as a new round of volatility in global capital markets crimped a slight rally that had begun to build in the previous week. The currency has already fallen nearly 20% in 2008, as skittish investors have fled emerging markets en masse as the credit crisis has flared with renewed vigor. Last week, the government intimated with only a modicum of vagueness that it is prepared to use its $250 Billion in reserve to defend the Won, in order to forestall the kind of currency crisis that crippled its economy in 1997-1998. Bloomber News reports:

Finance Minister Kang said policy makers will manage monetary and fiscal policy in a "stable” manner to strike a balance between curbing inflation and supporting the economy, which grew 4.8 percent last quarter, the slowest in more than a year.

Read More: Korea’s Won Drops, Nearing 4-Year Low; Government Bonds Advance

Over the last decade, the Central Banks of most emerging-market economies built up fantastic quantities of foreign exchange reserves, as a result of lopsided trade and current surpluses with foreign countries eager to invest abroad. However, declining commodity prices, sagging stock markets, and a global trend towards risk aversion have propelled investors to shift massive amounts of capital back into the industrialized world. As a result, these same Central Banks are drawing down on their reserves at a similarly rapid pace, in an attempt to shore up their ailing currencies. A cheap currency can be advantageous, especially during an economic downturn, since it makes exports relatively more competitive. On the flip side, a currency that loses too much value can trigger a crisis of confidence among investors, which affected many of these countries as recently as 1997-1998. The Wall Street Journal reports:

A rapidly weakening currency is worrisome for central banks concerned about inflation, since imported goods become more expensive, driving up overall prices.

Read More: States Play Currency Defense

It’s all but official: five Middle Eastern nations will form an EU-style Monetary Union by 2010. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Kuwait and Bahrain have signed a draft agreement to participate in a single-currency system, ostensibly to stimulate intra-regional trade. In fact, the Dollar’s recent volatility is probably the driving force behind this initiative. All five countries currently peg or formerly pegged their currencies to the Dollar, which contributed to domestic inflation as the Dollar depreciated. If this arrangement is implemented successfully, it could provide the impetus for similar currency unions in Asia and Africa. Bloomberg News reports:

The agreement allows for the creation of a monetary council, a precursor to the Gulf central bank.  The council will be responsible for deciding the level at which the Gulf currency is pegged to the dollar, aligning interest rates, monetary tools and goals.

Read More: Gulf Central Bankers May Adopt Monetary Union

The foreign exchange reserves of Central Banks throughout Asia have been dwindling. The most plausible explanation is that they are using their reserves to intervene in forex markets on behalf of their respective currencies, many of which have fallen dramatically in 2008. The Korean Won, Thai Baht, and Filipino Peso, to name but a few, have each dropped around 15%. While it may seem futile for Central Banks to continue intervening, it is important to remember that the goal may be to slow -not halt- the decline of the currency. In fact, given the current economic climate, most of them will tolerate currency weakness, in order to boost the competitiveness of their export sectors. Reuters reports:

"When the world slows, the policy focus in Asia would very quickly shift from inflation to growth. This means that monetary and credit policies will ease, and weaker currencies will be welcomed."

Read More: Asia’s forex intervention may be a losing game

Even given the Dollar’s universally strong performance over the last month, the slide in the value of the Korean Won has been an anomaly, falling over 10% over the same time period and reaching a 4-year low. Analysts attribute the decline to a widening of the country’s current account imbalance brought about by a collapse in confidence in Korean securities, namely stocks and bonds. Foreign investors are rushing for the exits in masse, and some are speculating that bonds worth $7 Billion that mature this week will lead to a further outflow of capital. Earlier this year, the Central Bank of Korea spent over $30 Billion propping up the Won, but it has thus far refrained from intervening in the midst of the current slide. At $250 Billion, the Bank’s foreign exchange reserves are massive, and it could easily attempt to back up its stern warnings to bearish investors with a large-scale intervention. Thomson Financial News reports:

The government did not intend to intervene in currency markets, the MoneyToday, the online news service, quoted an unnamed official as saying on Sunday. Markets are mystified at the reluctance of Korean authorities to back their words with dollar sales.

Read More: Korea warns currency bears, but shrinks from action

I won’t lie; the Forex Blog is admittedly Dollar-centric, in that developments in forex markets are usually assessed relative to their projected impact on the US Dollar. Sometimes, we forget that their are other currency pairs that move irrespective of the Dollar. Take the Australian Dollar and New Zealand Kiwi, for example. As both currencies are backed by high interest rates, they have benefited equally from the carry trade and as a result, they behave quite similarly. Combined with the fact that they are practically neighbors, it’s easy to forget that there are unique circumstances that weigh separately on them.

Over the next 12 months, both countries’ Central Banks are expected to significantly lower their benchmark interest rates as a result of slowing economic growth. However, as New Zealand does not have a large stock of natural resources to depend on in times of economic turmoil, it is projected to lower rates quite sharply, compared to Australia. Accordingly, the Australian Dollar may represent a buying opportunity against the Kiwi in the near-term. Bloomberg News reports:

New Zealand’s dollar is likely to fall 8.7 percent to NZ$1.33 versus Australia’s by year-end as the nation’s economic slowdown accelerates, boosting prospects the RBNZ will lower borrowing costs…according to RBC Capital Markets.

Read More: Buy Australian Dollar Calls Versus New Zealand Dollar, RBC Says

While not yet in the same league as other popular emerging market currencies, the Brazilian Real and Mexican Peso are sure to join their ranks soon; both currencies have risen markedly over the last few years, and have performed especially well in the year-to-date. They have been propelled by interest rates that are generously high, especially compared to those of the US and EU. Brazil’s benchmark rate currently stands at 13%, while Mexico’s equivelent rate is slightly lower, at 8%. In fact, interest rates are quite high throughout the region, including in Peru and in Chile. Anlaysts expect most of these Central Banks will further tighten their leding rates because of surging inflation, which would provide further impetus to the upward marches of their respective currencies against the Dollar. Reuters reports:

"We see EMEA (European, Middle Eastern and African) central banks as reaching the end of their (monetary) tightening cycles, whereas there is still more to go from Latin America," wrote Barclays Capital.

Read More: Latam inflation eyed for currency impact

In historical periods of financial crisis, where did investors turn? The answer: the US. Some analysts thought that this logic would be turned on its head during the current credit crisis, since the reputation of the US as investing safe haven would surely be undermined by its role in the global economic slowdown. Over the last couple weeks, however, investors have returned en masse to US capital markets, sending US equities as well as the US Dollar to new highs. This has created a self-fulfilling cycle whereby a more valuable Dollar is driving commodity prices lower, which in turn, will benefit the US economy and drive the Dollar even higher. Perhaps the new logic is not so different from the old: that although it was the US that is primarily responsible for the credit crunch, it is also the US which is most likely to lead the global economy out of it. The Los Angeles Times reports:

Whether we come out of this first remains to be seen. But some grim economic data from Europe and Japan in recent weeks at least confirm that the slowdown has gone global. In that sense, the U.S. is the devil you know.

Read More: Homecoming time: Money pours back into U.S. markets

2008 has witnessed an explosion of volatility in emerging markets, affecting both debt and equity securities. Fluctuations have been especially dramatic in the forex markets, compounding the turmoil and skewing returns for foreign investors. The South African Rand and Brazilian Real, for example, have moved so violently that for both countries, a 10% gap distinguishes the returns earned by local and foreign investors. As a result, some institutional investors are re-examining their hedging strategies with regard to emerging markets. According to experts, currency hedging among equity investors is still rare because it is expensive and often complex. If hedging is undertaken at all, it is usually outsourced to a third-party. Some investors are quite dogmatic in their insistence that hedging is a complete waste of money, and argue instead that diversification (into different countries/currencies) represents a "natural" hedge. Since, the net change in exchange rates must ultimately be zero, a diversified, long-term approach to investing in emerging markets may automatically mitigate against currency risk. The Guardian reports:

"Currency movements tend to be noisy but over the long term they are just reflective of the economy and not the driver of economic performance."

Read More: FX swings wreak havoc with emerging equity returns

In what some analysts have termed ‘an act of desperation,’ Vietnam has devalued its currency, the Dong, by .5%. Negative pressure had been building above the Dong for months, due to a burgeoning trade deficit, sagging stock market, and a stratospheric inflation rate, most recently clocked at 23%. Unfortunately for Vietnam’s economic planners, the black market exchange rate remains nearly 5% below the official rate. In addition, futures prices reflect the expectation that the Dong will lose 30% of its value over the next twelve months. At this point, Vietnam is simply trying to forestall a full-scale economic crisis. This will probably involve further devaluations of the Dong. The Times Online reports-

Analysts said that the rising risk of a sudden and crippling depreciation
comes as the cracks in Vietnam’s vaunted “economic miracle” have grown too
large to ignore.

Read More- Markdown of dong, the Vietnamese currency, seen as act of desperation

The Indian Rupee has fallen to a 14-month low as a result of the sagging Indian stock market and surging inflation. Foreign investors have withdrawn $5.7 Billion from the Indian stock market in the first half of 2008, reinforcing the 30% drop in stock prices that occurred over the same time period. Meanwhile, the nation’s benchmark inflation rate has risen to the highest level in nearly 13 years, and investors are clamoring for the Royal Bank of India to do more. The RBI has already raised interest rates as well as intervening on the Rupee’s behalf in forex markets, as indicated by data on the RBI’s foreign exchange reserves. Both moves were explicitly aimed at combating inflation, but may also carry the unavoidable consequence of stunted economic growth. The Rupee will likely continue to be caught in the slipstream. Bloomberg News reports:

"The rupee is under pressure to weaken because the losses in the stock market are raising concern about capital outflows. The currency could fall further if not for support from the central bank.”

Read More: India’s Rupee Falls to Near 14-Month Low on Stock Market Losses

At the recent Reuters Investment Outlook Summit, forex was a popular topic of discussion among the investment strategists in attendance. Specifically, many of the participants were bullish about emerging market currencies. This is somewhat ironic, since these currencies have marked one of the few bright spots for the Dollar, which has benefited from a recent trend towards risk aversion as a result of the credit crisis. In addition, the Fed is certainly finished with its current cycle of lowering rates, and may in fact hike rates as early as this year. However, the experts insist that this will be offset by corresponding rate hikes in emerging markets, which are beginning to come to terms with surging inflation. The currencies of Brazil and Malaysia were singled out because they both benefit from rising commodity prices. In addition, all of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) and Mexico, continue to be favored by currency investors. Reuters reports:

A decade of fiscal discipline, political stability and export diversification is also likely to help the Mexican peso in the near term, said…a managing director for foreign exchange products at BMO Capital Markets.

Read More: Emerging markets forex rally still has legs

Apparently, Russia has aspirations to turn its currency, the Rouble, into an international reserve currency. Moreover, according to an official with the International Monetary Fund (IMF), this plan is not that far-fetched. Despite soaring inflation and political oppression, Russia’s economy is forecast to grow at 8% for the next two years, due primarily to soaring natural resource prices. By its own admission, Russia needs to diversify its economy without inhibiting growth, strengthen its financial system, and conduct monetary policy with price stability in mind. These ambitious steps, combined with continued economic growth, would position the Rouble to be a stable and viable alternative to the Dollar, especially on a regional basis. The Guardian reports:

Russia, with a $1.3 trillion economy at the end of last year, is targeting a place among the world’s top five economies by 2020, [President] Medvedev has said. But he acknowledges the rule of law needs to be strengthened and corruption must be rooted out.

Read More: IMF says rouble could become reserve currency

The Central Bank of Vietnam has effectively devalued its national currency, the Dong, to bring it in line with market fundamentals. Pressure had been building under the Dong due to soaring inflation, currently estimated at 25%. While 2% devaluation was small in itself, it caps a 5% drop in the currency since March 25. In addition, the move showed just  how seriousness Vietnam is about restoring macroeconomic stability. Unfortunately, Vietnam’s balance of trade is probably deteriorating faster than it can be repaired, which means the Dong may slide much further. The black market exchange rate is estimated at 18,000:1, compared to the official rate of 16,461:1. Non-deliverable forward contracts imply a 30% depreciation in the Dong in the next year. The Guardian reports:

Fitch Ratings, which lowered its ratings outlook on Vietnam to negative from stable in May, said policy responses have been too slow and too small to deal with the economic pressures.

Read More: Vietnam effectively devalues dong 2 pct

The Continuous Linked Settlement (CLS) Bank, which performs the thankless job of settling the nearly $4 Trillion in currency trades completed each day, recently announced that it will now settle trades involving the Israeli Shekel. This is quite an honor for Israel, as only 16 other currencies can claim this distinction. Implicitly, the Israeli Shekel has been deemed both important and stable enough to be fully convertible. The announcement marks another positive development for the currency, which has appreciated by an astounding 30% against the Dollar over the last year, including 15% since the beginning of 2008. It is unclear when amateur traders will be able to trade the Shekel, but now that it is included in the CLS roster, it probably won’t be long. YNet reports:

The Bank of Israel has been in contact with CLS on the matter since 2004 and had consistently pushed Israeli banks
to meet the CLS criteria. The induction of the shekel into the CLS system is considered a very important step towards upgrading Israel’s financial infrastructure.

Read More: CLS declares Israeli shekel eligible for international transaction

Over the last two years, South Korea’s overseas borrowings more than doubled, to $388 Billion. Nervous, perhaps, that Korean businesses may be overextending themselves, the government is seeking to regulate such activities. Based on the way the forex markets responded to the news, it must be perceived that borrowing abroad is helping the Korean economy. On the one hand, if loans are denominated in foreign currency and must then be converted to local currency, this would exert upward pressure on the Korean Won. On the other hand, this also requires more local currency to be printed, which fuels inflation. Much of the borrowings are being undertaken by shipbuilders who are trying to hedge their exposure to a rising Dollar. The Edge Daily reports:

Some analysts say the forward-trading-linked borrowing is not as big a problem as borrowing to fund consumption would be, but the government is worried that the sharp rise in debt over a short period of time could undermine the local financial system.

Read More: South Korea says not planning direct FX curbs

Raise your hand if you’ve ever heard of the Hungarian Forint.  I didn’t think so.

The Forint is Hungary’s currency, and it is performing quite well, having surged 2.5% against the Euro this month alone en route to a three-year high. The currency’s rise can be ascribed to a combination of technical and fundamental factors. On the technical side, the Forint is nearing 240 per Euro which represents the top end of the band within which it was previously permitted to fluctuate. [This band was dissolved by the currency board in February]. According to analysts, a large quantity of options contracts were fitted with a strike price of 240, which is causing the Forint to accelerate as it nears this important barrier. On the fundamental side, Hungary has burnishing its inflation fighting credentials by raising its benchmark interest rate to 8.25%, convincing investors that it is serious in its efforts to maintain price stability. Political uncertainty and a minority government are working against the Forint, but these factors pale in comparison to inflation. The Guardian reports:

Gyula Pleschinger, currency strategist at Morgan Stanley believes the currency will firm further as it was significantly undervalued relative to regional peers.

Read More: Hungarian forint may test all-time highs

In the early months of 2008, the Icelandic Krona continued its downward slide, ultimately losing 26% of its value. Inflation is nearing 12%, the economy is in tatters, and there is a crisis of confidence affecting the banking sector. Having already raised interest rates to 15.5%, the Bank of Iceland was out of options. Perhaps out of concern that the turmoil in Iceland would spread to continental Europe, the Central Banks of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark were impelled to act. Their assistance took the form of a swap agreement, which provides Iceland with access to €1.5 Billion in emergency funding.

As soon as the news broke, the Krona appreciated nearly 5%, as some semblance of confidence in the country’s still-fragile banking sector was restored. Despite the emergeny funding, Iceland is far from being in the clear. The country’s national debt remains problematic, as evidenced by a recent downgrading of its credit score. If Iceland were ever to make use of the funds covered under the swap agreement, investors would probably rush for the exits and send its currency on another downward spiral. The New York Times reports:

Iceland, a country accustomed to booms and busts, probably cannot escape an especially painful adjustment this time, as it digests years of heavy borrowing from abroad. Public and private economists differ mainly on the length and depth of the contraction.

Read More: 3 Nordic Banks Help Iceland Prop Up Currency

In the year-to-date, the Korean Won has recorded the worst performance of any currency in Asia, having recently fallen to a 6-week low. The story is being driven as much by Dollar strength is by Won weakness. US equities have rallied over the last month, as investors may have been overly pessimistic in the previous months regarding near-term US economic prospects.  In addition, the Fed has probably lowered interest rates for the last time, whereas the Central Bank of Korea has held its benchmark lending rate at 5% since the summer. This yield differential, which currently favors Korea, may narrow substantially over the coming months, as the Bank of Korea is forced to reckon with slowing growth and rising inflation. Bloomberg News reports:

Growth, at the slowest in more than three years last quarter, is losing momentum, the Bank of Korea said in a report on May 1. Policy makers next meet on May 8 to decide on the benchmark seven-day repurchase rate.

Read More: Won Declines to Six-Week Low

2007 was a banner year for the Turkish Lira, which appreciated 21% against the US Dollar. However, in the year-to-date, the currency has returned nearly 10% of this gain, making it the third worst performing currency in the world. Turkey generally, and the Lira specifically, are considered by investors as proxies for emerging markets. The global trend towards risk aversion, as well as skyrocketing inflation, are hurting many such currencies. In Turkey, inflation is so problematic (9.4% at last count) that the Central Bank has raised its benchmark interest rate to 15.25%. Ironically, the more the Lira depreciates, the harder it becomes for the Central Bank to control inflation, causing the Lira to slide further as part of a self-perpetuating free-fall. In addition, the country is beset by political uncertainty, as the courts determine whether the nation’s current government can stay in office. Bloomberg News reports:

"The recent political developments are likely to complicate policy-making and the investment climate. The deteriorating political backdrop will in turn undermine the prospects for restoring fiscal discipline and reviving the reform agenda."

Read More: Lira Goes From First to Worst as Politics Whack Bulls

In the year-to-date, the Vietnamese Dong has fallen by .7%.  That may not seem like much, but since the Dong/Dollar exchange rate is approximately 16,000 to 1, every .1% is meaningful. Unfortunately for Vietnam, analysts are predicting that the Dong will fall further, due to a confluence of factors. First, the Vietnamese stock market is tanking; the 42% decline recorded thus far in 2008 makes it Asia’s worst performer and unattractive for foreign investors. The second factor is inflation, which is nearing 20% and is directly eroding the value of the Dong. Finally, there are technical factors, such as rising imports and market sentiment that the Central Bank will hold down the Dong to support the export sector.  Bloomberg News reports:

"The key concerns are that inflation and excessive domestic growth have been allowed to persist. Those pressures have flipped from dong positive to dong negative.”

Read More: Dong to Drop as Inflation Deters Investors

Since the inception of the credit crunch, one of the themes in forex markets has been the surprising strength of the Dollar. Despite growing economic uncertainty, the US is still viewed as a relatively safe place to invest. On the other hand, emerging markets, especially those with current account deficits, have witnessed capital flight and subsequent currency depreciation.  The currencies of South Africa and Iceland, for example, have both experienced declines 20% since the start of this year.  Risk premiums had fallen to historic lows prior to the credit crunch, and neither country experienced great difficulty financing its respecive deficits.  However, investors are growing increasingly nervous and are shifting capital to countries with stable current account balances. The Financial Times reports:

Goldman Sachs says: "We have long argued that in times of global turmoil suppliers of capital are poised to outperform countries in need of capital.  However, it is only since January 2008 that we have seen the current account theme really gain momentum in the FX market."

Read More: Currencies at mercy of deficits

In a thinly disguised effort to stem the appreciation of its currency, Brazil has announced sweeping changes to its rules governing forex.  Rather than revert to outright intervention in the forex markets, however, Brazil will permit businesses to hold more foreign currency as part of their reserves.  In this way, the Central Bank won’t have to purchase Dollar-denominated assets directly.  Instead, it is hoping that the natural attraction of US and other Western capital markets will be enough to drive private Brazilian companies to increase their holdings abroad.  It is intended that this will act against the upward pressure on the Real, which rose 20% against the Dollar in 2007, and 5% already in 2008, and now threatens to drag down the economy.  Dow Jones reports:

The strong real has made some Brazilian manufactured exports such as textiles and footwear less competitive. Meanwhile, it also has introduced a boom in imports resulting in a narrowing of the country’s trade surplus.

Read More: Brazil Council To Meet Wed To Change Forex Rules

Two weeks ago, then-First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia, Dmitry Medvedev, commented publicly on a more significant role for the Russian Ruble in the global economy, and especially in the regional economy.  Fast forward to yesterday, when Medvedev was elected the next Prime Minister of Russia, which means his ideas on forex are more likely to become policy.  Medvedev has argued in favor of turning the Ruble into a regional reserve currency.  This would first necessitate liberalizing its forex policy by permitting the Ruble to float freely; it is currently fixed to a basket of Euros and Dollars.  Given the uncertainty surrounding the Dollar and the global economy at large, as well as the recent boom in Russia’s economy, Medvedev clearly smells an opportunity. Neighboring (former Soviet bloc) countries could be persuaded to denominate their reserves partially in Rubles as well as to consider using Rubles in energy transactions. Reuters reports:

Russia, which receives most of its energy revenues in dollars, buys euros, pounds sterling, yen and Swiss francs to diversify its $478 billion gold and forex reserves, the world’s third-largest.

Read More: Free Float Seen as Key For Reserve Currency

The three rules of monetary policy- goes the old adage- are inflation, inflation, inflation.  Well, maybe not.  But that is certainly the story in the Middle East; Saudi Arabia’s official inflation rate is the highest in 12 years, and Qatar and the UAE have witnessed double-digit percentage increases, in annualized terms. Since their currencies are pegged to the USD, however, their Central Banks are unable to raise rates accordingly, leaving them with a tough decision: allow the currency to appreciate or watch prices spiral out of control.  It is the same story being told in every developing country that pegs their currency to the Dollar, and the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) are certainly not exempt. As the ranking member, Saudi Arabia will all but determine if and how the official forex policy changes.  An announcement could come any day. The Gulf Times reports:

Mohammed al-Jasser, Saudi Arabia’s deputy central bank governor, had said last month that the Gulf Arab states should maintain their currency pegs to the US dollar regardless of rampant inflation in the region or the impact of US rate cuts.

Read More: Saudi to mull forex policy as more US rate cuts loom

While the Chinese Yuan quickly ascended the ranks of the world’s most important currencies, the Indian Rupee has not yet made it.  But that might change in 2008, as the Royal Bank of India ("RBI") will be forced to decide between a more valuable rupee and price stability.  Until now, the RBI has successfully pursued the "impossible trinity of a fixed exchange rate, independent monetary policy, and open capital account" through judicious use forex intervention and the issuance of sterilization bonds. Now, as prices are creeping up, the RBI has found itself constrained in its ability to hike rates because of the resulting pressure on its currency. Furthermore, the rupee has already begun to appreciate, costing jobs in certain export-dependent (and politically sensitive) industries. The Economic Times reports:

Monetary policymakers have been torn between letting the rupee appreciate and intervening in the currency markets to inject more rupee liquidity which could be potentially inflationary in nature.

Read More: Gazing through the crystal ball

Although the Chinese Yuan is ostensibly allowed to fluctuate in value, the reality is that the size of its fluctuations and the pace of its appreciation are tightly controlled by China’s Central Bank.  Since its currency is still effectively fixed to the Dollar, China is severely curtailed in its ability to conduct monetary policy and must closely mirror US policy.  Same goes for the rest of Asia, excluding Japan. While US monetary policy was relatively tight, as it has been for the last five years, this necessity didn’t cause too many problems; most of these economies would have kept interest rates high irrespective of the US.

Since the Fed began loosening monetary policy over the last six months, however, many of the emerging economies in Asia, especially China, have been forced into a bind.  On the one hand, lowering interest rates is exacerbating the problem of inflation.  On the other hand, they want to keep their currencies stable so as not to limit economic growth.  In short, Central Banks must determine which is more important: fighting inflation or promoting growth. According to some economists, these economies are so strong, having grown by nearly 10% collectively last year, that they can afford to slow down, if it will result in greater price stability.  But the only way to stabilize prices is to drastically raise interest rates, which will put even greater pressure on their currencies to appreciate.

In addition, the Central Banks of Asia have amassed a staggering $4 Trillion in foreign exchange reserves.  In the past, this has been a neutral, sometimes profitable activity.  Since the Fed began cutting rates, the interest rate differential has been turned upside-down such that Central Banks are now losing money on each unit of local currency they sell in exchange for Dollars.  According to one analyst, over $160 Billion has been lost since July 2006, and those losses will mount with each additional intervention.

Read More: Fed’s Lower Rates Pressure China to Strengthen Yuan

The Israeli Shekel has surged over 15% against the Dollar in the last six months, and by over 20% in the last two years. Analysts have suggested that the appreciation is due to the strength of Israeli’s economy vis-a-vis the US economy, which seems headed for recession.  In addition, Israeli citizens have repatriated billions of dollars in capital that had been held overseas and invested it in Israel’s financial markets, which in itself, has exerted much of the pressure on the Shekel.  There is now a surplus in the balance of payments, which means more capital is coming in to Israel than is being taken out.  As a result, Israeli exporters are getting nervous about the perceived consequences of a relatively expensive currency and are pressuring Israeli political leaders to take action.  The Central Bank, understandably, is reluctant to do so. Haaretz.org reports:

"Intervening in [the currency] market is risky and inefficient," [said] Bank of Israel Governor Stanley Fischer…earlier this week.

Read More: Dollar falls as Fischer says won’t intervene in currency market

As talk and evidence of a US economic recession builds, the Dollar has witnessed a slight upswing.  How to explain these seemingly contradictory trends? The rationale is surprisingly simple.  While a US recession would predictably hit the US harder than other countries, it would still hamper growth abroad, especially in emerging markets that have come to depend on exports to the US to drive growth.  Accordingly, investing in such emerging markets becomes relatively more risky than investing in the US, which is still considered to have the world’s most stable investing climate from a long-term perspective.  Thus, as risk aversion rises, so does the Dollar. Thomson Financial reports:

The combination of poor data weighed on stock markets in the US and Asia, while major bourses in Europe have all opened lower today. This meant the dollar gained support as investors shy away from riskier emerging market assets.

Read More: Dollar gains on the back of rising risk aversion

Those who make a living tracking and betting on the foreign exchange reserves of Central Banks officially have a new player to keep tabs on: India.  Nearly 17 years ago, India’s reserves dipped below $1 Billion, and government ministers began sounding the alarm bells. In comparison, fiscal 2007 witnessed a rise of $47 Billion in India’s reserves, bringing the total to $280 Billion.  The government is projecting an even greater increase in 2008, estimated at $100 Billion.  Now, the challenge is what to do with all of the reserves; investors will be tracking developments in this regard because of the implications for the currencies of which the reserves are denominated in.  The Dollar and Euro are currently jockeying for position; while the Dollar is way ahead, the Euro is quickly closing in.

Read More: India expects to add $100 bn to forex reserve in FY’08

Most of the world’s major currencies are affected by a variety of technical and fundamental factors, such that only taking into account one factor is tantamount to using P/E multiples as the sole basis for purchasing shares of stock. The New Zealand Dollar, which barely qualifies as a major currency seems to be one of the few exceptions to this common sense rule.  The preponderance of carry traders involved in trading the Yen ensures that the NZD inversely tracks the Japanese Yen.  In addition, the demand for Kiwi is directly proportional to appetite for risk, such that when risk aversion declines, the Kiwi increases, and vice versa.  The reasoning is quite simple: the Kiwi boasts the highest interest rates in the industrialized world. Because the investment climate in New Zealand is less stable than in other industrialized countries, New Zealand often witnesses capital flight during periods of global economic uncertainty.  The New Zealand Herald reports:

Gains in equities markets emboldened investors to take chances, prompting use of the low-yielding yen to buy assets in higher-yielding currencies like the kiwi in carry trades.

Read More: Equities send dollar up

The South African Rand is not the subject of much analysis in the forex community, which typically confines itself to the majors and the BRIC currencies – Brazil, Russia, India, and China. But recently, the Rand found itself on the radar screen  of at least one analyst, who pondered the implications of a growing trend towards risk aversion. It appears that the Rand has resumed a clearly identifiable downward path against the Dollar, a course which had been temporarily interrupted in the early years of the decade.  Now, inflation is picking up  again and investors globally are becoming more hostile towards risk, two factors which bode ill for the Rand.  On the other hand, South Africa is rich in natural resources; judging from the performance of the Canadian Loonie and the Australian Dollar, commodity economies are still in vogue. The Times reports:

The curve ball for precious metals would be a sustained stronger dollar, unlikely while the US economy is in its current predicament and the Fed is cutting rates.

Read More: A warning to beware of banking on the rand

In Venezuela, the inflation rate for 2007 is estimated at 20%, a slight increase over the 17% growth in prices that was observed in 2006.  The nation, led by Hugo Chavez, plans to deal with inflation by dropping a few zeros from the currency’s exchange rate.  Currently, the official exchange rate is 2,150 Venezuelan Bolivars for every US Dollar.  Under the revaluation, the new official exchange rate will become 2.15 Bolivars/USD.  Critics charge that the change will not have any impact on inflation, especially since the market exchange rate implies a Bolivar that is three times less valuable than government rates.  Chavez retorts that the revaluation is only one part of a broader, more sophisticated strategy.  Down Jones reports:

The Central bank president had earlier in the year said the effect on inflation would be neutral, and most economists agree, but [Finance Minister] Mr Cabezas said "it’s definitely going to have a positive effect" on the government’s fight against price increases.

Read More: Chavez drops zeros to fight inflation

India is quickly becoming a major force on the foreign exchange reserve scene.  While India doesn’t fix its currency to the USD like China does, it still removes most foreign currency from circulation in order to mitigate against inflation.  As a result, its reserves have ballooned to nearly $300 Billion, having increased by $100 Billion this year alone.  India will now be faced with the same decisions that many other forex reserve hogs have been forced to reckon with, namely how to allocate its reserves. While India hasn’t weighed in prominently on the issue as China has, analysts will be watching closely.  The Economic Times reports:

Rate cut by the Fed in the US along with the positive perception prevailing about the emerging economies such as India has led to sharp rise in inflows, it said.

Read More: Forex Reserves to touch $300 bn by March 2008

After months of delay and perhaps overly wishful thinking regarding the global credit crunch, the world’s Central Banks are finally ready to take action. America’s Federal Reserve Bank will join forces with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank and the Swiss National Bank as part of a concerted effort to introduce greater liquidity into global capital markets.  Under the plan, the Banks will auction off tens of billions of Dollars worth of bonds denominated in their respective currencies, and lend the proceeds to commercial banks.  The goal of the plan is to to limit growing risk aversion, which has caused banks to significantly rein in lending.  Further, while the move is designed primarily to boost confidence in equity markets, certain sectors of forex may also receive a bump.  High-yielding currencies such as the New Zealand Kiwi and Australian Dollar, which have been shunned in recent months, seem to be the most likely beneficiaries.  Forbes reports:

"If the market is convinced that central banks are finally doing enough to ease the liquidity situation we are likely to see the funding currencies (the yen and the Swiss franc) fall back, and higher-risk currencies like the Aussie and Kiwi currencies, rally."

Read More: Dollar rises as Fed, other central banks move to shore up liquidity

The Petrodollar phenomenon, analyzed recently by the Forex Blog, is now beginning to play out in real time. Last week, several high-ranking officials from the government and Central Bank of Bahrain, a small Mid East island-nation, publicly criticized the region’s collective policy of pegging their respective currencies to the USD. As a result of this and similar comments by officials from nearby countries, a flood of speculative capital has poured into the country as well as the region at large, betting that a change in the forex regime will take place as soon as next week. Now, countries such as the Bahrain are on the defensive, trying to hold down their currencies until a decision can be made. The Economic Times reports:

“Their speculation will not yield the gains they expect.” Bahrain’s central bank threatened to take action against anyone betting on dinar appreciation and accused foreign banks of spreading revaluation rumours.

Read More: UAE warns markets against betting on dirham revaluation

Earlier this week, we reported that the members of OPEC are mulling the possibility of pricing oil contracts in a basket of currencies, rather than solely in Dollars.  In a
related move, the members of the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) are also rethinking their exchange rate policies. Currently, the members of the GCC, consisting of United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman and Bahrain, all currently peg their respective currencies to the Dollar, in some form or another.  However, this policy is being scrutinized as a result of the falling Dollar, which has dragged down GCC currencies proportionately and triggered double-digit inflation.

In fact, Kuwait has already de-linked its currency from the USD and instead pegged it to a basket of currencies, so as to give it more flexibility in conducting monetary policy.  This represents the most likely course for the rest of the GCC, since it would allow them to maintain exchange rate stability while increasing their flexibility in conducting monetary policy.  This policy change, combined with the potential switch in oil pricing among OPEC nations, bodes ill for the Dollar. At the very least, it would result in decreased demand for USD and for Dollar-denominated assets. At worst, it would result in active diversification, of rotating foreign exchange reserves into assets denominated in other currencies, to support the new peg.

Read More: Countdown to lift-off

India’s forex reserves are growing at nearly $20 Billion every month and are quickly
approaching $300 Billion.  Of course, accompanying this windfall are the inevitable questions about what to do with the money.  The Royal Bank of India (RBI) had determined that at most, the Indian economy can absorb $50 Billion a year.  Accordingly, the bulk of the capital inflows are “sterilized” through the issuance of forex stabilization bonds, which are aimed both at controlling inflation and limiting the appreciation of the Indian Rupee.  Unfortunately, due to already-high inflation in India, the RBI must pay a higher rate of interest on the stabilization bonds than it is earning on the underlying assets, which means the scheme is a losing proposition.  The Economic Times reports:

The RBI is also hesitating to allow further appreciation in exchange rate. While it can allow appreciation of the exchange rate to avoid injecting liquidity (by way of buying dollars and selling rupees), it is concerned about the fact that it is already over-valued.

Read More: The 250-bn dollar question of capital inflows

For nearly two months, the Central Bank of Brazil was content to sit on the sidelines and watch its currency, the Real, appreciate rapidly against the Dollar.  Beginning on October 8, however, the Central Bank has intervened in forex markets every day as part of a targeted effort to depress the Real.  Its efforts have been relatively straightforward; rather than issue currency stabilization bonds, the Central Bank has opted to purchase massive quantities of Dollar-denominated assets in the open market, bringing its foreign exchange reserves to $168 Billion.  Moreover, its efforts have been largely successful, as the Real has fallen slightly against the Dollar during this period of intervention.  However, logic (and past experience) dictate that as soon as it stops intervening, the Real will resume its  previous (upward) course against the Dollar. Bloomberg News reports:

Foreign flows into Brazilian financial markets and booming commodity exports have made the real the best performer against the dollar this year among the 16 most-actively traded currencies tracked by Bloomberg, gaining 20 percent.

Read More: Brazilian Currency Falls After Central Bank Buys U.S. Dollars

This week, the Central Bank of Hong Kong intervened in forex markets for the first time in nearly two years, by purchasing over $1 Billion in US government securities.  The intervention was precipitated by fluctuation on the HK Dollar, which had been tending towards the upper end of its tightly controlled trading band.  Strength in the HK economy combined with a strong performance in HK capital markets have sucked large amounts of foreign capital into the Chinese-controlled city-state, which exerted upward pressure on its currency.  Hong Kong’s Central Bank also matched the recent rate cut by the Fed with a rate cut of their own.  Many analysts had put forth the idea that Hong Kong would scrap its peg when the Chinese Yuan slid past it, but this recent move suggests the Dollar peg is here to stay.  The Financial Times reports:

Joseph Yam, HKMA chief executive, said on Thursday: “We again reaffirm that the [Hong Kong] government has been clear in its financial policy and is committed to maintaining the peg.”

Read More: Hong Kong to stick with US dollar

Asian currencies, with the exception of the Chinese Yuan and Japanese Yen, have notched stellar performances this year.  The currencies of Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, to name but a few, have experienced double-digit increases (in percentage terms) against the Dollar. Worried about the impact of a rising currency on export growth, Asian central banks are in the process of intervening in forex markets.  Singapore, which uses currency manipulation as a form of monetary policy, believed to have already made purchases of US government bonds in order to depress the Singapore Dollar. South Korea, as well, has a history of forex intervention, albeit unsuccessful intervention, and may issue currency stabilization bonds before year-end.  The Gulf Daily News reports:

The Bank of Korea has repeatedly stated that it would closely monitor currency markets, expressing concern about the level of the won and money supply growth.

Read More: Asian banks calm currency surge

Most of the world’s emerging economies link their currencies to either the Dollar, the Euro or a basket of currencies, through an outright peg or a so-called "dirty float."  These countries have attracted waves of foreign money, with the intent of buying cheap exports, foreign direct investment, and capital/forex market speculation.  As a result, while the upside of these pegs has been seemingly boundless economic growth, the downside has been inflation, since many of these countries have been forced to print money in exchange for foreign currency.  Countries in the Middle East, Asia, and Eastern Europe, especially, have effected tremendous increases in their respective money supplies with double-digit inflation rates to match.  Many savvy investors, namely hedge funds, have begun to target countries with fixed exchange rates that are suffering high rates of inflation, with the reasoning that it is inevitable such currencies will soon be forced into appreciation. The Telegraph reports:

Further east, Vietnam is throwing in the towel as inflation hits 9pc. It said it will no longer hold down the dong by massive purchases of US bonds. Singapore, Taiwan, and Korea have begun to change tack, slowing dollar accumulation before inflation gets out of control.

Read More: Hedge funds target currency pegs

Continuing our coverage of BRIC countries (see previous post), the Brazilian Real has climbed 20% in value this year alone, on top of gains recorded in previous years. Fearing that an expensive currency will adversely affect its economy, Brazil’s Central Bank announced its plans to intervene in forex markets on behalf of the Real. The Central Bank will buy Dollars at the spot rate, which should bring down the Real slightly.  However, the Central Bank also intervened about two months ago, with limited effect on the Real.  And it doesn’t hold that this time around will be any different.  Ultimately, there are economic forces beyond the control of the Central Bank which are propelling the Real upward.  Reuters reports:

"But I don’t think the bank is going to be able to prevent the real from strengthening further," said one analyst. "The dollar inflows into the country are too strong."

Read More: Brazil stocks, currency slip as c.bank intervenes

Among the so-called BRIC developing countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China), India is probably the second hottest economy at the moment, after China of course. And following in the footsteps of other developing countries, it is quickly building a massive stock of foreign exchange reserves in order to hold down inflation. Previously, I resisted covering India, because its reserves were small compared to those of China and Japan and hence its potential impact on the Dollar was limited. However, having set another record, India’s forex reserves now top $250 Billion, which rank the country among the highest in the world in this regard. In fact, India is accumulating reserves at the blistering rate of $3 Billion/week!  The breakdown of the reserves (in terms of foreign currency) is unclear, but it seems reasonable to believe that it is dominated by Dollar assets.

Read More: India’s forex reserves rise to record $251 billion

It seems the collapse of the USD is quickly spreading; the Korean Won has become the latest currency to cash in on the sagging Dollar.  As with regard to other currencies that have risen against the Dollar, forex analysts are not attributing the Won’s rise to strength in the Korean economy, but rather weakness in the US economy.  It is also worth noting that previously, when the Won rose sharply against the Dollar, the Korean government moved quickly to intervene in forex markets in a vane attempt to protect the export-dependent Korean economy. However, as the Won inevitably continued to rise, the government incurred massive losses, essentially for naught.  As a result, analysts expect the Korean government to remain on the sidelines this time around.  The Korea Times reports: 

"Other than verbal intervention, it will be difficult for the government to actually meddle in the market to help stop the won’s appreciation."

Read More: Dollar’s Demise Means Mightier Won

The Brazilian Real is one of a string of currencies which is rising against the USD on the heels of speculation that the Federal Reserve Bank will cut US interest rates at its next meeting. If the meeting conforms with market expectations, the Fed will cut the benchmark federal funds rate by 50 basis points, to 4.75%. Such a move would further widen the gap between American and Brazilian interest rates, which are currently among the highest in the world.  The Brazilian Real has already climbed 10.5% against the USD during 2007, a run which should continue if the Brazilian economy further outperforms the US. Bloomberg News reports:

“Markets pressing the Fed for a rate cut will remain the story in global currency markets for a few more days,” said a local trader of Brazil’s foreign debt. “A rate cut would allow investors in Brazil to focus on the fundamentals, which point toward a stronger currency.”

Read More: Brazil’s Real Advances on Bets U.S. Will Cut Rates Next Week  

August reports show that the US lost 4000 jobs in one month. The biggest employment slump in several years, it appears that problems with the subprime market are affecting more people than ever. The dollar fell to a 30-day low after these reports went public. According to Reuters:

The euro vaulted to a one-month high of $1.3768 <EUR=> after the report before easing to $1.3751, up 0.5 percent. The dollar was down 0.8 percent at 114.42 yen <JPY=>, near a session low of 114.31 yen.

Read more: Dollar tumbles as August U.S. payrolls contract

Nearly one year ago, Thailand’s military overthrew the government in a bloodless coup, and commentators immediately began painting doomsday scenarios around the country’s economy. Since then, the Thai economy has surged, and the Baht has appreciated by over 20% and isn’t showing any signs of slowing. In response to concerns that the rising currency would begin to hinder exports and economic growth, Thailand has introduced a spate of measures designed to hold the currency in check. Namely, Thai businesses and citizens will be afforded more flexibility in transferring money outside of the country and keeping Thai currency in offshore accounts. MarketWatch reports:

“In the absence of a clear softening in the currency’s upward momentum, we expect Thai authorities to continue to apply a variety of measures — including further reductions in interest rates…”

Read More: Thailand relaxes currency rules to curb baht

The Indian Rupee has been tightly controlled by the country’s Central Bank, which has not allowed the currency to fluctuate much.  A few months ago, however, the Rupee suddenly and rapidly began appreciating against all of the world’s major currencies.  Now, the Rupee stands at a 9-year high against the USD.  It turns out that India’s Central Bank deliberately allowed the Rupee to appreciate in order to combat inflation.  The reasoning is that a more expensive currency would make imports less expensive and exports more expensive from the standpoint of foreigners, which would hopefully lead Indian exporters to release more supply domestically, thus lowering prices.  While it remains to be seen whether the strategy was successful in reducing inflation, you can be sure India’s Central Bank will continue to aggressively pursue a policy of Rupee appreciation, until it inflation has decisively been held in check. 

Read More: Rising rupee: The causes and consequences

While the soaring price of oil and subsequent buildup of reserves have garnered the attention of currency analysts to the MidEast, it is China and its $1.2 Trillion which generates the majority of forex reserves commentary. However, this may soon change.  In a recent report, The Institute of International Finance noted that the collective foreign exchange reserves of the six-member Gulf Cooperation Council now total $1.6 Trillion.  Further, as the price of oil predictably increases over the summer, the reserves will only grow larger, which should ensure that the region remains a mainstay of forex punditry.  The Financial Times reports:

The UAE, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait account for the bulk of the GCC’s $1,550bn of foreign asset holdings, according to the IIF. The overall holdings represented 225 per cent of the GCC’s gross domestic
product.

Read More: Gulf states’ foreign reserves swell

The leaders of 13 Asian nations recently agreed to pool part of their combined $2.7 Trillion in forex reserves to create a safety net of sorts, which would protect any and all of the member countries in the event of a currency crisis. The move stems from the 1997 Southeast Asian economic crisis, in which several Asian economies summarily devalued their currencies and were forced to enter into burdensome agreements with the International Monetary Fund.  The bloc also announced that it would continue preliminary discussions over the possibility of a common Asian currency.  However, this is probably still at least a decade from coming to fruition.  Xinhua reports:

“A relatively modest proposal for a currency index comprising a weighted basket of regional currencies has been bogged down in wrangling.”  Officials from the ADB now agree the proposal of a single currency is "many decades from being viable."

Read More:

China joins Asian bloc to create a forex safety net